Hinduism & History & Happenings

10 Avatars of Sri MahaVishnu/Narayana

2009-12-01T11:41:00.000-08:00

1) Matsya Avatar (Fish)

In Matsya Avatar, Lord Vishnu appeared as a one-horned fish and warned about the Mahapralaya (cosmic deluge) and also rescued the Vedas from Demon Damanaka

2) Kurma Avatar (The Tortoise)

Vishnu took the form of a tortoise in order to retrieve amritha from the cosmic flood. This amritha was essential for the gods to preserve their youth. On the back of Kurma the gods placed Mount Mandara and tied the divine snake Vasuki around the mountain. With snake acting as the rope to twirl the mountain, the ocean was churned, when the amritha appeared.

3) Varaha Avatar (The Boar)

The asura Hiranyaksh's drastic growth was becoming a cause of worry for the Devas. He had received a boon from Brahma, and was now busy proving his dominance over the 3 worlds.

While Brahma was asleep, the asura took Mother Earth (Bhoodevi) along with all the Vedas and sacred texts, and pushed them to the bottom of the ocean. All the devas went to Lord Vishnu to request his help in getting the earth back. It was then that the Lord assumed the form of a boar, to lift Bhoodevi out of the seas.

4) Narasimha Avatar (Man Lion)

Narasimha, emerging after tearing the pillar into two. He puts Hiranyakasipu on his lap and kills him by his bare claws. As the story goes, Prahlad, son of an evil and powerful king, is a pious boy devoted to Vishnu. His father tried to discourage his pious inclination and inflicted on his cruel punishments. Finally, he decided to kill him. Hiranyakasipu himself was invincible, having received a boon that he could not be killed by day or night, by man or beast, inside nor outside, or by any weapon. Hence Vishnu as Narasimha, appear as neither man nor beast, kills him with his claws at the hour of twilight, within a pillar. Not flaying any of the conditions of the boon Vishnu kills him and saves Prahlad, his devotee.

5) Vamana Avatar (Dwarf Priest)

BALI, the grandson of Prahlada was a very valorous and mighty asura. By his penance and might, he conquered the whole world. Indra and other gods fearing that he and asuras would conquer all the three worlds, went to Lord Vishnu for help. Lord Vishnu was then born as a dwarf Vamana in the household of a brahmana(priest). He went to Bali on growing up and asked for alms. Bali was delighted to offer him anything he requested even though his priest warned him that it was Lord Vishnu.
Vamana then requested for the amount of land that could come under his three feet. Bali gracefully agreed. Lord Vishnu then grew in size and covered the earth and heaven in two strides. And due to lack of space, he put his third leg on Bali himself and crushed Bali to the nether or the Patala loka(underground world), thus helping the Gods out.

6) Parasurama Avatar ( Rama with Axe)

Parasurama was the great-grandson of Maharishi Bhragu. He was a Brahmin who was blessed to be born with Kshatriya qualities. He learnt all the arts of warfare directly from Lord Shiva after performing tough penance.

7) Sri Rama Avatar( Perfect Man)

Lord Rama (the perfect man, king of Ayodha): King who uploads old rules at the cost of personal life.

8) Sri BalaRama Avatar(Shesha)

Balarama is acknowledged as being a manifestation of Shesha, the divine serpent on whom Vishnu rests

9) Sri Krishna Avatar ( Uphold Dharma)

10) Sri Kalki Avatar ( Dark Age)

Kalki Avatar, the last of the Maha Avatars of Vishnu, is yet to appear towards the end of the Kali Yuga or the Dark Age. The Kali Yuga is the Iron Age. So Kalki will be the Avatar or the Incarnation in the age of machines.

He is described in the Vishudharmottara Purana as a robust young man, riding on his white horse, Devadutta and with a shiny sword raised in his hand. While some sketch him as being four-armed, most of the records focuss on him as a two-armed. The scriptures picturize Kalki`s emergence "as a blazing Light" when He descends from heaven.

Whats in Bhavishya puran Prophet Muhammad or Demon Mahamad?

2009-11-19T07:13:00.000-08:00

Original Sanskrit Version
Bhavishya Puran: Prati Sarg: Part III:3,3 5-27

This is the text of pratisarg 1 2 3

mahamadh ithi khayat, shishya-sakha-samniviyath 5

....... mahadev marusthal nivasinam.

mahadevthe snanya-pya punch-gavua samnivithya

tripurarsur-nashav bahu-maya pravathiney 7

malech-dharma shav shudhaya sat-chit-anandaya swarupye,

thva ma hei kinkare vidhii sharanaghatham 8

sooth uchav: ithi shurthiya sthav deva shabadh-mah nupaya tam,

gath-vaya bhojraj-ney mahakhaleshwar-sthale 9

malech-shu dhushita bhumi-vahika nam-vishritha

arya dharma hi nav-vathra vahike desh-darunya 10

vamu-vatra maha-mayi yo-sav dagdho myaa pura

tripuro bali-daithyane proshith punaragath 11

ayoni sa varo math prasava daithyo-vrudhan

mahamadh ithi khayath , paishacha-kruthi thathpar 12

nagathvaya thvya bhup paisachae desh-vartake

math prasadhayane bhupal tav shudhii prajayathe 13

thi shruthva nupshav svadesha-napu maragmath

mahamadh toi sdhav sindhu-thir mupaye-yav 14

uchav bhupati premane mahamadh-virshad

tva deva maharaja das-tva magath 15

mamo-chit sabhu jiya-dhatha tatpashya bho nup

ithi shruthya ththa hata para vismaya-magath16

malechdhano mathi-shasi-tatsaya bhupasaya darutho17

tucha tva kalidas-sthu rusha praah mahamadham

maya-thei nirmithi dhutharya nush-mohan-hethvei 18

hanishyami-duravara vahik purusha-dhamum

ityak va sa jidh shrimanava-raja-tathpar 19

japthya dush-sah-trayach tah-sahansh juhav sa

bhasm mutva sa mayavi malech-dev-tva-magath 20

maybhithashtu tachya-shyaa desh vahii-kamayuuah

guhitva svaguro-bhasm madaheen tva-magatham 21

swapiit tav bhu-ghyot-thro-shrumadh-tathpara

madaheen puro jath thosha trith sayam smurthaum 22

rathri sa dev-roop-shav bahu-maya-virshad

paisacha deha-marathaya bhojraj hi so trivith23

arya-dharmo hei to raja-sarvoutham smurth

ishapraya karinayami paishacha dharma darunbhu24

linga-chedri shikhaheen shamshu dhaari sa dhushak

yukhalapi sarva bhakshi bhavishyat jano maum25
vina kaul cha pashav-thosha bhakshava matha maum

muslanav sanskar kushariv bhavishyat 26

tasman-musal-vanto hi jathiyo dharma dhushika

ithi pishacha-dharma mya kruth

Translation

[From the third part of the Pratisarga Parva.]

Shri Suta Gosvami said: In the dynasty of king Shalivahana, there were ten kings who went to the heavenly planets after ruling for over 500 years. Then gradually the morality declined on the earth. At that time Bhojaraja was the tenth of the kings on the earth. When he saw that the moral law of conduct was declining he went to conquer all the directions of his country with ten-thousand soldiers commanded by Kalidasa. He crossed the river Sindhu and conquered over the gandharas, mlecchas, shakas, kasmiris, naravas and sathas. Crossing the Sindhu, he conquered the ‘Mlencch’ in Gandhar and the ‘Shath’ in Kashmir. King Bhoj grabbed their treasure and then punished them.
In the mean time, an illusory mlencch named Mahamadh arrived with his preceptor (acharya) and his disciples to him. King Bhoj worshiped the idol of Lord Mahadev in the Marusthal (land of deserts). He bathed Lord Shiva with Ganges water and worshipped him in his mind with pancagavya (milk, ghee, yoghurt, cow dung, and cow urine) and sandalwood paste, etc. After he offered some prayers and pleased him. King Bhoj prayed to Lord Mahadev, “O Girijanath who stays in the marusthal (land of deserts), I offer my prayers to you. You have forced maya to destroy Tripurasur; but the mlencchs are worshiping you. You are pure and sacchidanand swaroop. I am your sevak. I have come under your protection.”

Suta Goswami said: After hearing the king’s prayers, Lord Shiva said: Let the King go to Mahakaleshwar (Ujjain). O King, the land where you are standing, that is popular by the name of Bahik (Baltic), has been polluted by the mlencchs. In that terrible country there no longer exists dharma. There was a mystic demon named Tripura(Tripurasura), whom I have already burnt to ashes, he has come again by the order of Bali. He has no origin but he achieved a benediction from me. His name is Mahamada(Muhammad) and his deeds are like that of a ghost. Therefore, O king, you should not go to this land of the evil ghost. By my mercy your intelligence will be purified. Hearing this the king came back to his country and Mahamada(Muhammad) came with them to the bank of the river Sindhu. He was expert in expanding illusion, so he said to the king very pleasingly: O great king, your god has become my servant. Just see, as he eats my remnants, so I will show you. The king became surprised when he saw this just before them. Then in anger Kalidasa rebuked Mahamada(Muhammad) “O rascal, you have created an illusion to bewilder the king, I will kill you, you are the lowest..."

That city is known as their site of pilgrimage, a place which was Madina or free from intoxication. Having a form of a ghost (Bhuta), the expert illusionist Mahamada(Muhammad) appeared at night in front of king Bhojaraja and said: O king, your religion is of course known as the best religion among all. Still I am going to establish a terrible and demoniac religion by the order of the Lord . The symptoms of my followers will be that they first of all will cut their genitals, have no shikha, but having beard, be wicked, make noise loudly and eat everything. They should eat animals without performing any rituals. This is my opinion. They will perform purificatory act with the musala or a pestle as you purify your things with kusha. Therefore, they will be known as musalman, the corrupters of religion. Thus the demoniac religion will be founded by me. After having heard all this the king came back to his palace and that ghost(Muhammad) went back to his place.

The intelligent king, Bhojaraj established the language of Sanskrit in three varnas - the brahmanas, kshatriyas and vaisyas - and for the shudras he established prakrita-bhasha, the ordinary language spoken by common men. After ruling his kingdom for 50 years, he went to the heavenly planet. The moral laws established by him were honored even by the demigods. The arya-varta, the pious land is situated between Vindhyacala and Himacala or the mountains known as Vindhya and Himalaya. The Aryans reside there, but varna-sankaras reside on the lower part of Vindhya. The musalman people were kept on the other side of the river Sindhu.

On the island of Barbara, Tusha and many others also the followers of Isamsiha were also situated as they were managed by a king or demigods.

Tripurasura's Past life

Tripurasur was the son of Sage Gritsamad. One day the sage sneezed and from this was created a young boy who the Sage brought up as his own son. The sage taught the boy the Ganana Twam, Ganesh Mantra. Equipped with this mantra the boy meditated intensely on Lord Ganesh who ultimately blessed him. He was given three pura-s of gold silver and iron. Since he was the owner of these three pura-s he was given the name Tripur. Ganesh also bestowed on Tripur to be the most powerful, who none but Lord Shiva himself could destroy and after being destroyed by Lord Shiva he would attain mukti-salvation.

This boon made Tripur proud and he brought havoc in the entire world. He conquered the Nether world and then proceeded to takeover Heaven. He defeated Indra the king of heaven. His aggression made Lord Brahma hide in a lotus and Lord Vishnu in the Shirsagar. He soon also took over Lord Shiva’s Kailash Parvat and thus became the King of all the three worlds. The gods wondered on how to vanquish Tripurasur. Lord Narada told them that, since he had been granted a boon by Lord Ganesh himself it would be very difficult to vanquish him. He advised them to meditate on Lord Ganesh. Pleased Lord Ganesh decided to help the Gods.

Disguised as brahmin he visited Tripurasur and told him that he was a very enlightened Brahmin and could make for him three flying planes. Riding these he woud be able to go anywhere he wished within minutes. The planes could only be destroyed by Shiva.In return Lord Ganesh asked him to get him the statue of Chintamani which was at the Kailash Mountain. Lord Shiva refused to give the statue to Tripurasur’s messenger. The angry Tripurasur himself went to get the statue. A fierce battle started between him and Lord Shiva. He destroyed everything that belonged to the Lord Shiva who too retired to the Girikandar.

Lord Shiva too realized that he was unable to destroy Tripurasur because he had not paid his respects to Lord Ganesh. He recited the Shadaakshar Mantra to invoke Ganesh. On doing so from his mouth emerged Gajanan to grant Shiva a boon. Shiva continued his invocation of Ganesh who ultimately directed him on how Tripurasur could be killed. Lord Shiva was asked to recite the Sahastranam and then direct an arrow at the three pura-s of Tripurasur.

Lord Shiva followed these instructions and finally vanquished Tripurasur.

The place where Lord Shiva invoked Lord Ganesh he also created a temple for him. The town surrounding this temple was called Manipur. The village Ranjangaon is considered to be the place where Lord Shiva himself sought the blessings of Ganesh and ultimately destroyed Tripurasur.

Mahamada (Incarnation of Tripurasura the demon) = Dharmadushika (Polluter of righteousness)

Religion founded by Mahamada = Paisachyadharama (demoniac religion)

Lord Shiva

2009-11-10T11:50:00.000-08:00

Ascetic traits: Shiva covers himself with ash from dead bodies, this rejecting symbolically the material world and expressing his disdain for its transience. He prefers being identified with the permanent soul that lies untainted within the body.

Shiva is always seen depicted wearing venomous serpents as if they were jewellery. Snakes, especially cobras can be seen around Shiva’s neck, slithering down this body, reflecting his absolute renunciation, his refusal to react or respond to any threat or temptation. He is Nageshvar, lord of serpents. The serpent also represents the coiled energy of Kundalini, the power that enables seeds to germinate and animals to conceive. Shiva as lord of herbs and master of beasts, the primordial ‘shaman’ in touch with nature’s mysteries, has a close relationship with serpents. The serpent is also said to be ananta sesha, the great serpent of eternity, within whose coils rests the universe.

Shiva usually carries a human skull in his hand to confront the world with its mortality. Sometimes he uses the skull-cap as a drinking bowl. Shiva always carries a trident, trishul, whose three prongs are said to represent the trinity of Brahma, Vishnu and Maheshvar (shiva). A crescent moon crowns Shiva’s head earning him the title of Chandrachuda. Like the waxing and waning of the moon, Shiva is in tune with the activity and passivity of the cosmos. On this moon grows the herb soma whose sap is the favorite drink of the gods. As Trimbaka, the three-eyes god, he uses his cosmic inner eye to distinguish truth from illusion and to destroy lust that seduces man into samsara. His third eye endorses his position as lord of yoga.

Shiva the transcendent: Shiva means the auspicious one. Yet, everything about him seems inauspicious: he dwells in isolated hills, dark caves and dense jungles. He dances amidst funeral pyres, rattling bells and drums, wearing animal hide, if anything at all; he stinks like a goat, smears himself with ash, carries skulls, drinks poison, smokes narcotics, enjoys intoxicants, hangs out with ghosts, ghouls and goblins, demands worship during the dark half of the lunar month. Shiva thus transcends the duality of good-bad, right-wrong, holy-unholy, auspicious-inauspicious. Shiva stands above it all, accepting, loving all.

Shiva the teacher: Shiva is the fountainhead of all wisdom. The Knowledge he imparts helps man to live a richer and fuller life. He is the lord of the performing arts, fine arts, martial arts, literature, science, mysticism and philosophy. He taught man the secrets of herbs along with the cycles of nature and the cosmos.

Shiva the outsider: Shiva, is the rebel who challenges orthodoxy. He is a nonconformist, the refuge of all outsiders, individuals who feel alienated in a traditional society. He is the lord of the demons, of yakshas, asuras, danavas, rakshasas, all creatures deemed evil by society simply because their nature is not in accordance with the needs of civilization.

Shiva the man: Shiva symbolizes cosmic virility. He is the cosmic man in eternal union with the cosmic women. He is thus the father-god, who complements the mother-goddess. If he is the seed, she is the field; he is the sky, she is the earth; if he is stillness, she is movement; if he is the axle she is the wheel; if he is the linga, she is the yoni. Together they are fused, two halves of the whole.

Shiva the destroyer: Brahma creates the world, Vishnu sustains it, Shiva destroys it. Together this holy trinity ensures the rotation of the cycle of life. Shiva accepts all that us foul, unclean, dirty, rejected; he destroys the corruptions within them all and prepares them for rebirth. He is thus the renewer, the regenerator, the transformer.

Shiva the soul: Shiva is the cosmic spirit untouched by material transformations. He stands beyond gender, space and time, yet permeates the entire cosmos. He is the vitality of life, the source of all things and their final destination. He is the sad-chitta-ananda: absolute truth, pure consciousness, eternal bliss. Union with him is the ultimate aim of all creatures.

Shiva the godhead: Shiva is the supreme being. He has five aspects representing creation, preservation, destruction, oblivion and grace. He has eight forms representing the soul, the sun, the moon, and the elements: earth, fire, water, wind and ether. He is the totality of all manifestation, the meaning of all existence. He is a mystery waiting to be unfathomed, just like life. To understand him is to understand the ultimate reality the governs the cosmos: the eternal absolute truth, sanatan dharma.

The Origin of Vishnu's Sudarshana Chakra

2009-11-10T09:35:00.000-08:00

This is the story of how MahaVishnu's(Narayana) Sudarshana Chakra came into existence. The asuras, or demons, were extremely bad. They always tortured the cosmic gods. At one time, the cosmic gods were suffering so much from the attacks of the demons that they went to see Lord Vishnu. They wanted to seek his help in defeating the demons.

MahaVishnu said to them, "I do not have enough power to defeat or destroy the demons. I must seek help from Shiva. I will ask him to give me a special weapon that will help me defeat the demons."

When MahaVishnu went to Shiva, he found Lord Shiva in trance. Vishnu did not want to disturb Shiva's meditation, so he started praying and praying to Shiva with the hope that one day he would come out of his trance.

Every day, for years and years, MahaVishnu prayed to Shiva, meditated on Shiva and chanted Shiva's name very devotedly. He offered one thousand lotus blossoms to Shiva every day. Each time he offered Shiva a lotus blossom, he would chant Shiva's name.

This went on for such a long time and still Shiva remained rapt in trance. Poor MahaVishnu was helpless! The gods(DEVAS) were being mercilessly tortured by the demons and he was unable to save them.

Finally, after many long years, Shiva came out of his trance. MahaVishnu's joy knew no bounds. He ran to gather one thousand lotus blossoms so that he could worship Lord Shiva and ask for a special boon.

Shiva had already decided that he would grant MahaVishnu the boon, but first he wanted to play a trick on MahaVishnu. He secretly went to the spot where MahaVishnu had placed the lotus flowers and stole one flower. Now there were only 999 flowers.

After making all his preparations, MahaVishnu began to worship Shiva most devotedly. One by one, he offered the lotus flowers and chanted Shiva's name. When he came to the end, he realised that one flower was missing. He had only counted 999. That meant he had to go and find one more lotus. Instead of doing that, he immediately plucked out one of his eyes and placed it before Shiva.

When Shiva saw that MahaVishnu had such devotion for him, he said, "I will grant you anything that you ask for."

"Please give me something that will help me to conquer the asuras," said MahaVishnu.

Shiva replied, "I give you this round disc. It will help you to conquer all your enemies. No matter how many demons come to attack you and the other gods, you will be able to defeat them all with this disc."

The name of the disc was the Sudarshana Chakra. When Lord Krishna took incarnation, MahaVishnu gave him this chakra, because Krishna was the embodiment of Vishnu. Krishna could immediately use the chakra at any time; it was his own property. Sri Chaitanya also used the Sudarshana Chakra a few times. He was able to invoke it and it would come to him. When he wanted to kill Jagai and Madhai, for example, he invoked it. These two ruffians saw it coming from Heaven and became extremely frightened. Before it reached them, they surrendered to Sri Chaitanya.

The Sudarshana Chakra is not thrown. With will-power it is sent against the enemy. It rotates very, very fast after leaving the finger and chases the enemy. The chakra itself is round and has something like the points of arrows all around its edge. It has tremendous occult and spiritual power to destroy everything. Nobody can stand against the Sudarshana Chakra.

How To Remove Common Misconceptions About Hinduism

2009-11-08T10:58:00.000-08:00

Hinduism is a vast religion with multiple facets. It is the oldest religions in the world. For the less informed, Hinduism may look too confusing, too complicated to understand, and too contradictory in its precepts and practices. Even many Hindus do not know the exalted philosophies of the religion. Naturally, there are many misconceptions commonly prevalent about Hinduism, some propagated by vested interests, some by ill-informed westerners and some by self-doubting Hindus. Here is an attempt to clear up some of those misconceptions.

1) Know that Hinduism does not have 330 million Gods.

As per Hindu mythology, this count actually refers to Devas - celestial beings - but not Gods. Deva is a Sanskrit term that at times is used to glorify Gods, but not to represent Gods. This usage has led to the mischievous misinterpretation by westerners to denounce Hinduism as a religion of 330 million gods. Unfortunately, many ill-informed Hindus, too, have taken to believe in this misperception. Devas, according to mythology, live in Indralokha (or Devalokha, an equivalent of Heaven) and they are none other than human beings in earlier births who did extraordinarily good deeds with a desire to enjoy the fruits of such deeds. They enjoy the fruits of those deeds in Deva Lokha, and once exhausted, they have to take birth again in this world. According to the mythology, this cycle is an ongoing phenomenon.

2) Know that Hinduism, in its essence, is not a religion of multiple Gods.

Hinduism permits worship of multiple God forms, endowed with different looks, powers, and attributes, who, in reality, represent the One God, known as Brahman, or Parabrahman, Paramatma or Satchidananda. Hinduism accepts the basic differences in every person in taste, temperament and capacity of intake in the matter of religion. A woman found distasteful to one person can be the soul-stirring sweetheart of another person. When such a difference in taste can exist, why not allow different tastes in the worshiping of God? Thus Hinduism permits you to choose a specific God form most appealing and lovable to you; it encourages you to believe wholeheartedly that that particular God form indeed is the one supreme God. A chaste woman considers her husband alone to be the most handsome and most wonderful person; likewise, at the lower echelons of religion, a believer's conviction that his personal God alone is the most powerful and the "only true God" is also encouraged.

As a person matures in his religious progress, he surpasses his narrow convictions. He understands by experience that one supreme lord has, by His grace, adapted to come in the form of his personal God and that He presents Himself in other forms to satisfy other sects of believers. At the ultimate level of experience, the seeker perceives that the whole universe is simply nothing other than God and it includes his own soul, too.

3) Know that Hinduism has not ordained that the society should be caste-based with all the concomitant discriminations.

Hinduism had accepted the practical fact that there will always be differences among persons in intellectual, physical and mental capabilities. For the society to run smoothly like well-oiled machinery, there has to be a well-defined division of labor. The society needs all sorts of people who do their jobs to the best of their ability doing those activities best suited to them. The society needs peasants and artisans (‘Shudra'), traders (‘Vysya'), intellectuals and teachers (‘Brahmin'), and warriors (‘Kshatriya'). Each class requires its own skill sets, physical and mental capabilities, food habits, ethical and moral codes of conduct and the Hindu Dharma has provided these guidelines. What is best suited to one class need not be a benchmark for another. The society at large accepted these classifications as matters of fact (without acrimony) in ancient days. It is also said that such a division of labor was not originally based on family lineage. But when followed over generations, it gradually turned into a caste system and further degenerated into upper and lower classes with discrimination and acrimony between them. This is actually a sociological phenomenon and it is incorrect to blame the religion for it.

4) Know that Hinduism, by its Karma theory and the concept of rebirth, does not say that one has to gradually take birth "from lower to upper class"

before attaining Moksha. Hinduism says that as long as one has desires, one has to take rebirth. The rebirth can be in any class of the society and even a rebirth as an animal is not ruled out. Even a highly spiritually oriented Brahmin may get a rebirth in the form of an animal just to satiate some odd, unquenched desires of the previous birth.

5) Know that Hinduism does not say that the experience of God is reserved for Brahmins (the upper class/priest class) only.

Traditionally, Brahmins, by virtue of their social status, had the exclusive access to the highest scriptural knowledge (of Vedas) in those days. That way, they were better informed of the nuances of the highest religious facts. But that never made them exclusively able to attain the vision of God. The knowledge about swimming acquired by a person by reading books, but without any exposure to water, is useless. Likewise, in Hinduism, the personal experience of God is what really matters (and not the scriptural knowledge).

There are countless great masters in Hinduism who have experienced God without any theoretical knowledge of scriptures. Traditionally, even great pundits and Brahmin scholars kneel before these unlettered divine souls, many of whom are not Brahmins by birth, to learn about the true experience of God from them. Umpteen examples are available in Indian history on this count. The phenomenon of Brahmins dominating the religious scenario and showing discrimination towards other castes is again a sociological development and not a religiously ordained one.

6) Know that Hinduism is not totally anti-materialistic and does not totally discourage enjoyment.

What Hinduism says is that materialistic pursuits or running behind sensual pleasures is not going to fetch you everlasting happiness. It only says that behind any unbridled searching for enjoyment, there is always a pain lurking behind. Hinduism advises one to practice moderation, to be watchful, and not to get carried away. Hinduism does place liberation - ‘Moksha' as the ultimate goal of life and for the majority, the path of progress towards the goal (Moksha) includes Dharma (righteousness), Artha (materialism) and Kama (sensual enjoyments). The important point is that the materialistic and sensual enjoyments (Artha and Kama) must always be guided by righteousness (Dharma). Leading a life this way, one can gradually understand the transient nature of worldly life, acquire dispassion (‘Vairagya') and the mind then yearns for liberation (Moksha), the ultimate goal.

It is no doubt that Hinduism gives the highest regard to renunciation. But again, for the society at large, the recommended way of living so as to attain the supreme goal starts at ‘Brahmacharya' (celibacy at a young age while acquiring education), followed by ‘Grihasta' (married life of a householder), ‘Vanaprasta' (living frugally in a secluded way at the forest, once the couple has completed their duty toward their offspring) and finally ‘Sanyasa' (total renunciation). When an earnest seeker is mature enough to comprehend the transient nature of worldly life, has a high degree of discrimination and dispassion and yearns for God, he can opt to renounce much earlier, without going through all these stages one by one.

7) Know that Hinduism does not preach fatalism and does not negate self-effort.

It is wrong to think that by advocating Karma theory (which says that for every action in the past, one has to face the reaction inescapably in the future and this cycle transcends births over births), Hinduism encourages a fatalistic attitude. What Hinduism says is that one cannot have freedom of choice in facing the repercussions of past actions, but one does have the free will to choose his present actions. It is quite obvious that only because we have the freedom of choice of action, we have accumulated our past Karmas!

The essence of Hinduism on this matter is two-fold. One: The reactions to our past actions are not entirely self-propelling; they are indeed executed by the will of God; the more one surrenders to God and the more one accepts with humility the divine dispensation, the more one gets relief from the impinging effects of Karma. Two: By carefully choosing one's present actions based on Dharma, by doing acts with dispassion and a sense of surrender to the supreme, one paves the way for escaping from the evil effects of his present actions in the future

8) Know that Hinduism does not say that faith and surrender to a Hindu God alone are the way to salvation.

Hinduism has two major approaches to the concept of God. One starts by negating "I" and the other starts and ends with "I".

In the first school (Bhakti Yoga - the path of love), the whole universe is God; It is God who creates, preserves and destroys. He is omnipresent and omnipotent. In front of him, "I" am nothing. I have no individuality. I, too, am part of him. He, the Paramatman, is the true existence. I, the Atman, am part and parcel of (and subservient to) Him.

In the second school (Gnyana Yoga - the path of Wisdom), the seeker thinks "I don't know whether a God exists; whether he is with form or without form; I don't know whether the world is his creation; But one thing I know; I exist. In waking, dreaming or deep sleep, I am aware of my existence. When I think, "I am," at that moment, everything else also comes into existence. When my mind ceases to function (as in deep sleep), the whole world, the entire creation vanishes. Everything - the world, the cosmos, the personal God of worship - everything is a product of the mind. When the seeker inquires to find ‘Who am I?" and truly experiences this reality in a truly "mindless" state, he grasps the fact that his soul, Atman, is none other than the Brahman, the supreme soul.

9) Hinduism does not say that possession of occult powers is an indication that one has attained God realization.

Occult powers (Siddhi) may develop in a person who is deeply involved in spiritual practices with single-pointed concentration. But it has to be understood that presence of Siddhi is not an indication of a person's attainment of true spiritual wisdom. The highest goal being God realization in Hinduism, obtaining Siddhis in fact can distract a person from his goal and cause spiritual downfall. This is the warning given by all great spiritual masters of Hinduism. But a person who has reached his goal, may still have Siddhis in him but he cares the least about them. It is up to him to use them for the good of others or not.

10) Know that Hinduism does not say that one should blindly believe his Guru to attain salvation.

For an earnest seeker who is convinced that attaining Moksha - salvation/God realization/self-realization - is the goal of life, Hinduism emphasizes the need for surrendering to a Guru (rather to a Satguru - a Guru of the highest order who has personally experienced the Supreme Truth). Hinduism encourages one to do all the questioning and doubting before selecting a Guru; After surrendering to a Guru, asking probing questions of the Guru until getting convincing answers is also encouraged. At the same time, Hinduism is very clear that egotism is one of the greatest impediments to attaining the supreme truth. That's why great masters say that unconditional surrender (rather than egotistic arguments and doubting) is the best option to receive the grace of the Satguru.

Other than the above, there are always differences of opinions among various schools of philosophies in Hinduism about the interpretation of scripture. But these are quite normal and acceptable in a vast religion like Hinduism. Sri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa used to say, "Until one gets the vision of God, there will always be lurking doubts; Once divine vision is had, all doubts will vanish once for all."

Ten Questions About Hinduism & Ten Answers

2009-11-08T10:31:00.000-08:00

1) Why Does Hinduism have so many Gods?

Hindus all believe in One Supreme God who created the Universe. He is all-pervasive. He created many Gods, highly advanced spiritual beings, to be His helpers.

Hindus all worship the One Supreme God, called by Various Names, depending on their Denomination. and they revere a multitude of angelic beings, which they call Gods. The central Figure is - Lord Shiva, worshipped as the Supreme Almighty by Saivites and many other Hindus. Cradled in His hands are other Great Beings, known as Gods(trinity) including Lord Ganesha( son of Lord Shiva).

2) Why Do Hindus worship the COW?

Hindus don't worship Cows. We respect , honour and adore the Cow. By honoring this gebtle animal, Who Gives more than She Takes, We honor all Creatures.

Hindus Never worship Cows, but they do revere them as perfect example of Divinity in all forms of Life. Here is a Girl garlands a Cow whose Horns are painted and Adorned with brass tips and tassels. Her sister offers fresh grass. In India, the Cow is honored , adored and protected as a Symbol of wealth , strength , abundance, selfless giving and a full Earthly Life.

3) Do Hindus believe in Reincarnation?

Yes, We believe the Soul is immortal and takes Birth time and time again. Through this process, we have Experience, learn Lessons and evolve spiritually. Finally we graduate from Physical Birth.

Each Soul by experiencing many Varied lives through reincarnation, called "Punarjanam" in Sanskrit, the process wherein the soul repeatedly takes on a Physical Body through being born on Earth. Here, a soul, represented by the ray of Light, is shown in seven succesive lives. Reincarnation is a purposeful maturing process Governed by the Laws of Karma.

4) Are Hindus IDOL Worshiper?

Hindus do not worship a Stone or Metal "idol" as God. We worship God through the image. We invoke the presence of God from the higher, unseen Worlds, into the image so that we can commune with Him and receive His blessings.

A Devotee looks within and beyond the Bronze danzing Shiva to behold God in His spiritual body of Light. Dressed in Traditional Hindu Garb, the man is performing his daily puja in his home shrine- chanting Sankrit mantras, offering fruit, water, flowers, incense and light - worshiping devoutly, beseeching God to send blessing through the Enshrined Image.

5) What is Karma?

Karma is the Universal Principle of Cause and Effect. Our Actions, both Good or Bad, come back to US in the future, helping us to learn from life's lessons and become better people.

One of the best examples of Karma is that you can't give anything away but that Generosity will return to you, with interest. Here , in the upper scene, a Lady happily gives clothing to a youth. Below, She receives an unexpected Gift from a neighbour as the Karma of her good deed bring its natural reward. By wisely heeding Karma's ways, we Thread the Path of Dharma.

6) Are Hindus Forbidden to eat Meat?

Hindusim Teaches Vegeterianism as a Way to live with a Minimum of Hurt to Other Beings. But in todays's world not all Hindus are Vegeterians.

Vendors at a market are selling fruits, vegetables, grains, spices and sweet-a potpourri of food that a great Cooks creatively combine in one of the World's most Sumptuous Cuisines. Hindus understand the sound reasons against eating meat, and many abstain entirely. With such a Savory and Healthy Diet, there is no need to consume FLESH.

7) Do Hindus have Bible?

Our "Bible" is called the Veda. The Veda, which means "Wisdom"', is comprised of the Four ancient and Holy Scriptures which all Hindus revere as the revealed word of God.

The Vedas are Revealed Scriptures, meaning they were issued Forth by God through Enlightened Sages or Rishsis. This Divine transmission is depicted here as Lord Shiva bestows the Four book of Veda to Four Rishis. the Sacred Knowledge, passed orally for most of History, was finally scribed in Sanskrit on "Palm Leaves" to share and preserve it.

8) Why do many Hindus wear a Dot near the middle of their forehead?

The Dot worn on the Forehead is a Religious Symbol. It represents Divine sight and shows one is Hindu. For Woman it is also a beauty mark.

Decorating the Face and Body with Colorful paints is a Universal Human practice, often a cultural rite expressing one's tribe, beliefs, and identity. The forehead dot shows that one is proud to be a Hindu and bespeaks mystical seeing beyond the five senses. Here , in a simple, daily act, a woman is obligingly applies a red bindi to her sister's forehead.

9) Are Gods of Hinduism Really Married?

It is True that God is often Depicted with a Spouse in our traditional stories. However, on deeper philosophical level, the Supreme Being and the Gods are neither Male or Female and therefore not Married.

Through History , Hindus have depicted God as Ardhanarishvara, which literally means "half- female Lord"- Shiva as male on the right and female on the left. This vision of the Divine as our Mother-Father God supersedes the Popular, mythological notion of Marriage of a God and Goddess, Declaring that God and His energy are ONE. ( Equality for both men n Women in hinduism)

10) What about Caste and untouchabilty?

Caste is the hereditary Division of Indian Society bassed on Occupation. The lowest caste, deemed untouchables, suffer from discrimination and mistreatment. It is illegal in India to discriminate against , abuse or insult anyone of basis of caste.

Representatives of the Four castes or Varna are shown here. They 1st Priest 2nd king/warriors 3rd merchants 4th workers. These are Natural Divisions which appears in all nations and societies as shown by the Universal existence, in the form of Religious ministers, armies/police , businessman's association and labour unions.

LAW OF RETURNS
"This Law is Simple. It is the Law of Returns.
You Get what you Give. Those who Give little,
Gets little in return, whether as Work or Elsewhere.
Those who Go the Extra Mile will be Rewarded sooner or Later."

Ten Questions About Hinduism & Ten Answers

2009-11-08T08:56:00.000-08:00

Muslim Protesters threaten bloodshed over Hindu temple

2009-11-05T14:55:00.000-08:00

SHAH ALAM, Aug 28 — A group of Malay-Muslim protesters claiming to be residents of Section 23 have threatened bloodshed unless the state government stopped the construction of a Hindu Temple.

Amid chants of "Allahuakbar," the group also left the severed head of a cow at the entrance of the State Secretariat here as a warning to Selangor Mentri Besar Tan Sri Khalid Ibrahim.

The group making their way to the Selangor secretariat building after their prayers. - Picture by Choo Choy May

The "residents" said that the construction of a Hindu temple in a 90 per cent Malay- Muslim neighbourhood was insensitive because activities there would disrupt their lives.

They claimed that the "noise" from the temple would disturb their own praying, and that they would not be able to function properly as Muslims.

The group of 50 over protestors marched shortly after Friday prayers from the Shah Alam State mosque to the State Secretariat.

“I challenge YB Khalid, YB Rodziah and Xavier Jeyakumar to go on with the temple construction. I guarantee bloodshed and racial tension will happen if this goes on, and the state will be held responsible,” shouted Ibrahim Haji Sabri amid strong chants of “Allahu Akbar!”

Ibrahim identified himself as the Deputy Chairman of the Resident’s Committee against the building of the temple in S23 here, which is perceived by some as being a Muslim majority area.

He told the press that the state should move the temple to Section 22 as ‘originally planned’, and also labelled Khalid a “traitor to the Malay race and Islam”.

It is understood that the protest is an immediate reaction towards the Selangor MB’s visit to the Hindu temple site yesterday, an act seen by the "residents" as disrespectful to the Muslims of the community.

Mohd. Zurit Bin Ramli, who claims to be the secretary of the "Coalition of Malaysian NGOs" echoed Ibrahim’s stand on the matter, saying that it was irresponsible on the part of the state government to approve the construction as there was apparently a “90 per cent” majority Muslim population in Section 23.

“With a temple on our residential area, we cannot function properly as Muslims. The temple will disrupt our daily activities like prayers in the Surau. We cannot concentrate with the sounds coming from the temple,” stated Zurit.

When asked whether members of the protest were affiliated with any organisations or movements, Ibrahim claimed that the people present today were members of PAS, PKR as well as Umno who are “united in the name of Islam and the Malay spirit.”

The state government was also accused of lying to the people of Selangor.

The Chairman of the Residents Committee, Mahyuddin Manaf excitedly proclaimed that the committee would uncover “the lies” and find proof of the state’s misconduct.

“Khalid Ibrahim wears a mask of a Muslim, but in truth he is a liberal. PAS stands to lose out as a result. I voted for PAS as well as Khalid in the past elections,” Mahyuddin claimed.

The issue first cropped up when the Selangor government proposed that the Sri Mariamman temple be relocated from Section 19 to Section 23.

Lingashtakam

2009-11-03T15:48:00.000-08:00

Text One

brahma muraari suraarchita lingam
nirmala bhashita shobhita lingam
janmaja dukha vinaashaka lingam
tat pranamaami sadaa shiva lingam

I bow before that Sada Shiva Linga, which is adored by Brahma, Vishnu and other Gods, which is praised by pure and holy speeches and which destroys the cycle of births and deaths.

Text Two

devamuni pravaraarchita lingam
kaamadaham karunaakara lingam
raavana darpa vinaashaka lingam
tat pranamaami sada shiva lingam

I bow before that Sada Shiva Linga, which is the destroyer of desires, which the Devas and the sages worship, which is infinitely compassionate and which subdued the pride of Raavana.

Text Three

sarva sugandha sulepitha lingam
buddhi vivardhana kaarana lingam
siddha suraasura vanditha lingam
tat pranamaami sadaa shiva lingam

I bow before that Sada Shiva Linga, which is lavishly smeared with variegated perfumes and scents, which elevates the power of thought and enkindles the light of discrimination, and before which the Siddhas and Suras and Asuras prostrate.

Text Four

kanaka mahaamani bhushitha lingam
phanipathi veshtitha shobhitha lingam
daksha suyajna vinaashaka lingam
tat pranamaami sadaa shiva lingam

I bow before that Sada Shiva Linga, the destroyer of Dakshas sacrifice, which is decorated with various ornaments, studded with different gems and rubies and which glows with the garland of the serpent Lord coiled around it.

Text Five

kumkuma chandana lepitha lingam
pankaja haara sushobhitha lingam
sanchitha paapa vinaashaka lingam
tat pranamaami sadaa shiva lingam

I bow before that Sada Shiva Linga, which is smeared with saffron and sandal paste, which is decorated with lotus garlands and which wipes out all accumulated sins.

Text Six

devaganaarchitha sevitha lingam
bhaavair bhakti bhirevacha lingam
dinakara koti prabhakara lingam
tat pranamaami sadaa shiva lingam

I bow before that Sada Shiva Linga which is worshipped by the multitude of Gods with genuine thoughts full of faith and devotion and whose splendor is like that of a million suns.

Text Seven

ashta dalopari veshtitha lingam
sarva samudbhava kaarana lingam
ashta daridra vinaashaka lingam
tat pranamaami sadaa shiva lingam

I bow before that Sada Shiva Linga, destroyer of all poverty and misery in its eight aspects, which is the cause of all creation and which stands on the eight petalled Lotus.

Text Eight

suraguru suravara pujitha lingam
suravana pushpa sadaarchitha lingam
paraatparam paramatmaka lingam
tat pranamaami sadaa shiva lingam

I bow before that Sada Shiva Linga which is the Transcendent Being and the Supreme Self, worshipped by all Suras and their preceptor (Brhaspathi), with innumerable flowers from the celestial gardens.

Text Nine

lingashtakamidam punyam
ya:pathaet sivasannidau .
sivalokamavapnoti sivena saha modatae.

Whoever recites these eight slokas, in praise of the Shivalinga with the presence of Lord Shiva, attains that Supreme abode of Shiva and enjoys everlasting bliss with Him.

Lord Shiva

2009-11-03T15:37:00.000-08:00

Lord Shiva or Siva is considered as the destroyer of the world. Shiva is one of the most popular gods of the Hindu religion. Lord Siva forms the part of the Trimurti (Trinity), the other being Brahma, the creator and Vishnu, the preserver. Shiva is known for the complexity of his nature, representing contradictory qualities. He is the destroyer and the restorer, the great ascetic and the symbol of sensuality, the kind herdsman of souls and a wrathful avenger.

Lord Shiva- The Role

Lord Shiva represents the vital goodness in the form of Satyam, Shivam, Sundaram i.e.; Truth, Goodness and Beauty .Lord Shiva performs a celestial role of dissolution and recreation of the universe, that's why; he is mostly associated with the words, like destroyer and destruction. The role of Shiva is often confused with these terms and the difficulty arises, when the significance of his celestial role is not understood.

The conception is clear itself by a slight balance between the opposing forces of good and evil. When this balance gets disturbed and continuation of life becomes unfeasible, Lord Shiva dissolves the universe. This is known as '' pralay '' and it is done in order to create another cycle .So that the unliberated souls will get another opportunity to liberate themselves from the bondage of the material world. To put succinctly, Siva protects the souls from pain and suffering that is generated by the unhealthy universe.

Shiva - The Giver

Lord Shiva is known as the ''giver god'', lord of mercy and kindness. He always protects his devotees from evil forces like lust, greed and anger. He is the most kind -hearted God who grants boons and bestows grace to his devotees.

Shiva - The Image

Lord Shiva has the unclad body covered with ashes symbolizing the transcendental aspect of the universe. Siva's three matted locks represent the integration of the mental, physical and spiritual energies. The crescent moon becomes the part of lord's ornament symbolizing the time cycle through which creation evolves from the beginning to the end. The three eyes of Lord Shiva suggest: the Sun is his right eye, the Moon is the left eye and fire, the third eye.

The Snake around his neck symbolizes the yogic power, which he uses to dissolve and recreate the universe. The Rudraksha necklace worn by the lord shows that he uses his celestial powers without compromise,to maintain law and order. The trishula (trident), symbolizes the Lord's three fundamental powers of will (iccha), action (kriya) and knowledge (gyana).The damaru (drum) and its two sides separated from each other symbolizes the two entirely dissimilar states of existence, invisible and evident.

The bull, Nandi is linked with Shiva and it is considered as his vehicle. The bull symbolizes both power and ignorance. Tiger's skin makes Lord Shiva's clothing and his seat, which illustrates the idea that he is the source of potential energy during the dissolution of the universe. Thus, Lord Shiva is well-regarded as the ultimate organizer of the birth and death in the corporeal world.

Shiva - The Lingam

Story of Shiva Lingam - Why Shiva is worshipped in the Phallic Form
This is an interesting story regarding the worship of Lord Shiva in the phallic form. It is believed that once Brahma and Vishnu, the two deities of the Trinity, got into an argument regarding their supremacy. Lord Brahma declared himself to be more admired, being the creator. While the preserver, Vishnu, pronounced that he commanded more admiration. Just then a huge pillar of fire (lingam), called as Jyotirlinga, appeared in flames, before them. This Lingam enthralled both Brahma and Vishnu, with its hastily increasing size.

With this incident, they forgot their quarrel and decided to find its size. Vishnu took the form of boar and went to the netherworld. Brahma assumed the form of a Swan and flew to the skies. However both of them were unsuccessful in completing the self-assumed tasks. At that time, Shiva appeared out of the lingam and acknowledged that he was the progenitor of both, Brahma and Vishnu. So, he should be worshipped in his phallic (lingam) form, and not in the anthropomorphic form.

Names of Shiva

Lord Shiva is considered as the destroyer of the Universe as per the Hindu Mythology. Shiva is one of the most popular gods of the Hindus. Lord Shiva is a complex god like goddess Kali, being destroyer and restorer at the same time. Shiva is also known as Bhole Shankar, the innocent god, who gets appeased easily. Shiv Shambhu is also recognized as an ascetic, as he resides on Mount Kailash in meditation. God Shiv is worshipped usually in his phallic (Lingam) form. Special Worship of Shiva can be seen during the month of Saawan (July-August) of Hinduism. Lord Shiva is known by many different names. This list contains 108 names of Lord Shiva with their meanings:

Names	Meanings
Aashutosh	One Who Fulfills Wishes at once
Aja	Unborn
Akshayaguna	God with Numberless Attributes
Anagha	Without Any error
Anantadrishti	of Infinite Vision
Augadh	One Who Revels All the Time
Avyayaprabhu	Everlasting Lord
Bhairav	Lord of Terror
Bhalanetra	One Who Has an Eye in the Forehead
Bholenath	Kind Hearted Lord
Bhooteshwara	Lord of Ghosts and Evil Beings
Bhudeva	Lord of the Earth
Bhutapala	Protector of the Ghosts
Chandrapal	Master Of The Moon
Chandraprakash	One Who Has Moon As A Crest
Dayalu	Compassionate
Devadeva	Lord Of The Lords
Dhanadeepa	Lord Of Affluence
Dhyanadeep	Icon Of Meditation And Concentration
Dhyutidhara	Lord Of Radiance
Digambara	Ascetic Without Any Clothes
Durjaneeya	Difficult To Be Known
Durjaya	Unvanquished
Gangadhara	God Of River Ganga
Girijapati	Husband Of Girija (Parvati)
Gunagrahin	Acceptor Of Gunas
Gurudeva	Master Of All
Hara	Remover Of Sins
Jagadisha	Master Of The Universe
Jaradhishamana	Redeemer From Afflictions
Jatin	One Who Has Knotted Hair
Kailas	One Who Bestows Peace
Kailashadhipati	Lord Of Mount Kailash
Kailashnath	Master Of Mount Kailash
Kamalakshana	Lotus-Eyed Lord
Kantha	Ever-Radiant
Kapalin	One WhoWears A Necklace Of Skulls
Khatvangin	One Who Has The Missile (Khatvangin) In His Hand
Kundalin	One Who Wears Earrings
Lalataksha	One Who Has An Eye In The Forehead
Lingadhyaksha	Lord Of The Lingas
Lingaraja	Lord Of The Lingas
Lokankara	Maker Of The Three Worlds
Lokapal	One Who Takes Care Of The World
Mahabuddhi	Exceptionally Intelligent
Mahadeva	Greatest God
Mahakala	Lord Of All Times
Mahamaya	Of Great Illusions
Mahamrityunjaya	Great Victor Of Death
Mahanidhi	Great Storehouse
Mahashaktimaya	One Who Has Infinite Powers
Mahayogi	Supreme of All Gods
Mahesha	The Almighty
Maheshwara	Lord of the Lords
Nagabhushana	One Who Has Snakes as Ornaments
Nataraja	King of the Art of Dancing
Nilakantha	Blue Necked Lord
Nityasundara	Ever Beautiful
Nrityapriya	Lover of Dance
Omkara	Originator of OM
Palanhaar	One Who Protects Everyone
Parameshwara	First among All Gods
Paramjyoti	Greatest Splendor
Pashupati	Lord of All Living Beings
Pinakin	One Who Has a Bow In His Hand
Pranava	Originator of the Syllable of OM
Priyabhakta	Favorite of the Devotees
Priyadarshana	of Loving Vision
Pushkara	One Who Gives Nourishment
Pushpalochana	One Who Has Eyes like Flowers
Ravilochana	Having Sun as the Eye
Rudra	the Dreadful
Rudraksha	One Who Has Eyes like Rudra
Sadashiva	Eternal God
Sanatana	Eternal Lord
Sarvacharya	Preceptor of All
Sarvashiva	Always Chaste
Sarvatapana	Scorcher of All
Sarvayoni	Source of Everything
Sarveshwara	Lord of All Gods
Shambhu	One Who Bestows Prosperity
Shankara	One Who Gives Happiness
Shiva	Always Pure
Shoolin	One Who Has a Trident (Trishool)
Shrikantha	of Magnificent Neck
Shrutiprakasha	Illuminator of the Vedas
Shuddhavigraha	One Who Has a Pure Body
Skandaguru	Preceptor of Skanda
Someshwara	Lord of All Gods
Sukhada	Bestower of Happiness
Suprita	Well Pleased
Suragana	Having Gods As Attendants
Sureshwara	Lord Of All Gods
Swayambhu	Self-Manifested
Tejaswani	One Who Spreads Illumination
Trilochana	Three-Eyed Lord
Trilokpati	Master of All the Three Worlds
Tripurari	Enemy of Tripura
Trishoolin	One Who Has a Trident in His Hands
Umapati	Husband of Uma (Parvati)
Vachaspati	Lord of Speech
Vajrahasta	One Who Has a Thunderbolt in His Hands
Varada	Granter of Boons
Vedakarta	Creator of the Vedas
Veerabhadra	Supreme Lord of the Nether World
Vishalaksha	Wide-Eyed Lord s
Vishveshwara	Lord of the Universe
Vrishavahana	One Who Has Bull as His Mount

Agni Purana: The Science of Fighting, Dynasties, and Literature

2009-11-03T15:28:00.000-08:00

Dhanurveda

The section on Dhanurveda is on arms and weapons.

There are five types of weapons that are used in war. The first category is that of yantramukta weapons, released from a machine (yantra). This machine may be a launcher or even a bow. The second category is that of panimukta weapons, weapons that are flung by the hand (pani). Examples are spears and stones. The third category is known as muktasandharita. These are weapons that can be flung and also withdrawn. The fourth category consists of weapons like swords that are never released from the hand during battle.

These are known as amukta weapons. And the last category of weapons consists of brute force and strength. This is of use in bouts of wrestling.

The best form of fighting is that with bows and arrows. Next comes fighting with spears, followed by fighting with swords. Wrestling is the worst form of fighting.

Before aiming, the bow (dhanusha) should be held with the arch pointing down towards the earth. The arrow (vana) should be placed against the bow with the head pointing down. The bow should now be raised and the lower end of the bow should be in line with the archer’s navel. The quiver should be at the back. Before releasing the arrow, the bow should be held firm with the left hand and the arrow with the fingers of the right hand. The string of the bow should be pulled back such that the tassel of the arrow is between the archer’s ear and right eye. The body should not be bent when one is releasing an arrow. Nor should on get excited. The archer has to be still as a pillar. The target has to be in line with the left fist and the archer’s posture has to be like that of a triangle. It is best to pull back the string of the bow upto the right ear.

A noose (pasha) is ten arms in length, with both ends of the weapon being circular. The main body of the weapon is made of rope. There are eleven different ways in which a noose may be held. A noose must always be flung with the right hand.

A sword (asi) must hang to the left of the waist. When a sword is to be taken out, the scabbard should be grasped in the left hand and the sword should be taken out with the right hand. There are thirty-two different way in which a sword and a shield may be held.

Property

What happens to a person’s debts when he dies? If he does not have any sons, the person who inherits the property also inherits the debts and had to pay them off. If there is a son, the son pays the debts off. But a woman is not to be held responsible for debts contracted by her husband or her son. Nor is a man responsible for debts contracted by his wife or son. Exceptions are instances where a husband and a wife contract a debt jointly.

If there are no witnesses to a contracted debt but the king feels that the debt was indeed contracted, the king must arrange for the debt to be repaid within a period of sixty-four days. In cases of a dispute, the person who brings a false suit will be punished by the king. And a false witness will be given twice the punishment that is meted out to the one who brings a false suit. A brahmana who bears false witness will be banished from the kingdom. A person who agrees to be a witness, but later withdraws, will be punished eight times as much as the bringer of the false suit. A brahmana who does this will be banished from the kingdom.

It is better that the details of a debt contracted be written down, with the names of the two parties and the witnesses clearly indicated. If the debtor pays in instalments, the details of all such payments must be recorded on the written document. Debts made in the presence of witnesses should also be repaid in the presence of witnesses. If a witness has to take an oath, the oath should be administered after cotton, fire, water or poison has been placed on the head of the witness.

Fire or water can be used to find out if a person is lying or not. If fire is used, seven banyan leaves are placed on the accused’s hand. A red hop lump of iron is then placed on the hand and the accused had to go around a fire seven times. If it is found that the hand has not been burnt, the person has been telling the truth. And if the hand has been burnt, he had been lying. Similarly, an accused person can be immersed in the water and if he does not drown, he has been telling the truth. Alternatively, the accused can be made to drink poison. If the poison does him no harm, he is truthful.

If the father makes a will, the property will be divided amongst the sons in accordance with the provisions of the will. But if all the sons get an equal share of the property, the wife should also be given an equal share, otherwise, the father can leave all his property to the eldest son. The sons and the father obtain equal shares to any property or debt that has been left by the grandfather. But the sons are not necessarily entitled to any property that has not been left by the grandfather, but been earned by father. If a son is born after the property has been divided, he too will be entitled to an equal share of any property left by the grandfather. Daughters are not entitled to property. But sons who have go married will use one-fourth of their inherited property to get their sisters married.

Donating the Puranas

The Agni Purana now describes the benefits of giving alms along with the purans. The puranas are to be donated together with cows. And in talking of the mahapuranas, the Agni Purana also mentions most of their length, in terms of the number of shlokas (couplets) that each has. This is worth stating.

The Brahma Purana - twenty-five thousand
The Padma Purana - twelve thousand
The Vishnu Purana - thirteen thousand
The Vayu Purana - fourteen thousand
The Bhagavata Purana - eighteen thousand
The Narada Purana - twenty-five thousand
The Markandeya Purana - nine thousand
The Agni Purana - twelve thousand
The Brahmavaivarta Purana - eighteen thousand
The Linga Purana - eleven thousand
The Varaha Purana - fourteen thousand
The Skanda Purana - eighty-four thousand
The Vamana Purana - ten thousand
The Kurma purana - eight thousand
The Matsya Purana - thirteen thousand
The Garuda Purana - eight thousand
The Brahmanda Purana - twelve thousand

The only mahapurana which is missing from the above list is the Bhavishya Purana. You now have a pretty good idea of how long the Puranas are. The Skaknda Purana is the longest and the Kurma and Garuda Puranas the shortest. But unfortunately, the numbers in the Agni Purana are not terribly accurate. The Padma Purana has fifty-five thousand couplets and not twelve as stated. The Varaha Purana has twenty-four thousands couplets and not fourteen thousand. The Agni Purana itself has slightly over fifteen thousand couplets land not twelve thousand. But at least you have some approximate idea about the lengths of the various Puranas.

The Brahama Purana is to be given in the month of Vaishakha. The Padma Purana is to be donated in the month of Jyaishtha. The Vishnu Purana is to be donated in the month of Ashada and the Vayu Purana in the month of Shravana. The Bhagavata Purana is to be given in the month of Bhadra, the Narada Purana in the month of Ashvina, the Markandeya Purana in the month of Kartika, the Agni Purana in the month of Margashirsha and the Bhavishya Purana in the month of Pousha. The Brahmavaivarta Purana in the month of Pousha. The Brahmavaivarta Purana is for the month of Magha, the Linga Purana for the month of Falguna and the Varaha Purana for the month of Chaitra.

The Skanda Purana is to be given to brahmanas. The Vamana Purana is to be given in the autumn. The Kurma Purana is to be given together with a golden urn. The Matsya Purana is to be donated together with a golden swan. The Brahmanda Purana is to be given to brahmanas.

Great benefits are also to be derived from hearing the Puranas recited. The reciter has to be given alms and the brahmanas must be given cows, rice and land at the time of the recitation. If one arranges for a recitation of the Puranas, one lives long, stays healthy and attains heaven.

Dynasties (Vamsha)

Brahma was born from Vishnu’s navel. Brahma’s son was Marichi, Marichi’s son Kashyapa and Kakshyapa’s son Vivasvana. From this line was descended Pururava and Pururava’s descendants were the kings of the surya (solar) dynasty.

Brahma also had a son named Atri and Atri had a son named Soma. Soma performed a rajasuya yajna (royal sacrifice). Having performed the sacrifice, Soma became the ruler of all the worlds. This made him very arrogant and he abducted the sage Brihaspati’s wife Tara. This led to a terrible war between the devas and the asuras. Tara was eventually restored to Brihaspati, but Soma and Tara had a son named Budha. From Budha were descended the kings of the chandra (lunar) dynasty.

There were twelve major wars between the devas and the asuras. The first of these was known as the Narasimha War. This took place when Hiranyakashipu was the king of the asuras. Vishnu adopted the form of Narsismha and killed Hiranyakashipu. He then made Prahlada the king of the demons. The second war was the Vamana war and it took place when Vali was the king of the demons. Vishnu adopted the form of a dwarf (vamana) to subjugate the demons. The third war was the Varaha war and this took place when Hiranyaksha was the king of the demons. Vishnu adopted the form of a wild boar (varaha) and killed Hiranyaksha. The fourth war was the Amritamanthana war and this took place over the manthana (churning) of the ocean for amrita (nectar).

The fifth war between the devas and the asuras took place over the abduction of Tara and this came to be known as the Tarakamaya war. The sixth war was known as the Ajivaka War. The seventh war took place when Tripura led the asuras and this was known as the Tripuraghatana war. It was Shiva who killed the demon Tripura in this war. The eighth war, the Andhaka war, took place when Andhaka led the asuras. It was Vishnu who engineered that Andhaka be killed when Andhaka expressed a desire to abduct Shiva’s wife.

The ninth war was known as Vritrasamhara and took place when Vritra led the demons. The tenth war was simply known as Jita. In this war, Vishnu killed Shalva and the other demons, and Parashurama killed the evil kshatriyas. The eleventh war was known as Halahala. An asura named Halahala (poison) had invaded Shiva’s body and flooded it with poison. But Vishnu managed to destroy the demon. In the twelfth war, known as Kolahala, Vishnu destroyed an asura named Kolahala (tumult).

Medicine

Dhanvantari was the physician of the gods and he taught Sushruta the art of ayurveda (medicine). The Agni Purana now describes what the sage Ssushruta had learnt, that is, the treatment for various diseases. This does not simply mean the treatment of human illnesses. There is a section known as vriksha ayurveda, which describes what trees are to be planted where. It describes how a garden is to be constructed and maintained.

The chapters on medicine also describe the treatment of elephants, horses and cattle. The mantras (incantations) which are the remedy for snake poison are also related.

Literature And Grammar

Thereafter, the Agni Purana has many chapters on literature and grammar. It describes the different types of chhanda (metres)that are used in poetry.

Next it discusses the alphabet. There are sixty-four letters (varna) in the alphabet, of which twenty-one are vowels (svara varna). There are three tones (svara) in which the letters of the alphabet may be uttered. Their names are udatta, anudatta and svarita. There are eight places from which the letters may be pronounced. These are the chest, the throat, the head, the back of the tongue, the teeth, the nose, the lips and the palate. Pronunciations should be clear and audible. They should not be nasal and mumbled.

The Agni Purana then discusses the alamkaras (rhetoric) that are used in poetry and plays. Poetry is entirely different from the shastras (sacred texts) and itihasa (history). The sacred texts are full of words and historical texts are full of narrations of incidents that took place. But that does not constitute poetry. Real men are difficult to find on this earth. Amongst these real men, it is difficult to find men who are learned. Amongst the learned men, it is not easy to find some who have a poetic sense. And amongst those who have poetic sense, it is difficult to find a few who can compose poetry. Poetry is impossible without a knowledge of the rules of poetry and even more important, without a sense of feeling.

Sanskrit is the language of the gods. The language of humans is Prakrita. Poetry can be either in Sanskrit or in Prakrita. There are three types of poetry. These are gadya (prose), padya (poetry) or mishra (a mixture of the two). Genuine poetry is, however, only padya

Gadya can be of three types-churnaka, utkalika and vrittagandhi. Churnaka prose is easy on the ears, it has very few compouond words. Utkalika prose is hard on the ears, it is full of compound words. Vrittagandhi prose is some where between churnaka and utkalika.

An epic must always be split up into sections (sarga). It has to be written in Sanskrit, although some mixture of Sanskrit words with Prakrita ones is permissible. The theme of an epic must always be good and historical elements may be introduced if the author so desires.

Literature is useless without the flavour of sentiments (rasa). There are nine sentiments that are used. The first is hasya (humour). The second is karuna rasa (pathos). The third is roudra rasa (that which is wrathful and awe-inspiring). The fourth is vira rasa (heroic themes). The fifth is bhayanaka rasa (horror). The sixth is bibhatsa rasa (vulgar and obscene themes). The seventh is adbhuta rasa (that which is strange). The eighth is shanta rasa (placidity). And the ninth is shringara rasa (amorous themes).

But the sentiments must be used with feeling. Without feeling, all literature becomes mediocre. Particularly in a play, sentiments can be supplemented with skills (kalal). These skills are normally associated with women and there are sixty-four of them. The more important ones are singing, playing musical instruments, dancing, acting, drawing, making garlands, sewing, hairdressing and using magic.

Grammatical rules of sandhi and samasa (rules for forming compound words) are next described. The difference between the two is that in sandhi, the two words that are being joined retain their original senses in the compound word. The case of samasa is different. Sandhi occurs when two varnas (letters) met. Samasa is a condensation or conversion of two or more words into one. Sandhi does not create any new word. Samasa leads to the formation of a third word which refers to something related to but distinct from either or any of the words combined. Pita (yellow) and ambara (cloth) combined by way of sandhi are pronounced pitambara and mean cloth that is yellow. The same two words combined by way of samasa result in the third word pitambara which means “the one dressed in yellow”, that is, Krishna.

There are several possible declensions of words, depending on the vachana and the vibhakti. The vachana refers to the number. Eka-vachana is when there is only one (phalam, a fruit) dvi-vachana when there are two (phale, two fruits) and vahu-vachana when there are more than two (phalani, more than two fruits). There are three genders, pumlinga (masculine), strilinga (feminine) and klivalinga (neuter). Deva, asura, Vishnu are, for example, masculine in gender. Devi, Kalika or maya are feminine. Pushpa (flower) or phala (fruit) are neuter.

There are six karakas (cases) and seven vibhaktis (case-endings). The agent who performs the action indicated by the kriya (verb), is the kartri or doer. To the kartri karaka or Nominative Case, the prathama vibhakti or first case-ending is attached. The object of the action is karma and to the karma karaka or objective Case, the second (dvitiya) case-ending is attached. The means or instruments by which the action is performed takes on the karana karaka or Instrumental Cases and the third (tritiya) case-ending. When a gift is given irrevocably, the recipient takes on the sampradana karaka or Dative Case and the case-ending in question is the fourth (chaturthi). That which is the source of something takes on the apadana karaka or Ablative Case and the fifth (panchami) case-ending. When there is a relation of possessions, the possessor takes on the shashthi vibhakti (sixth case-ending). There is no counterpart of the possessive Case of English grammar because the relation of possession is not directly related to the verb (kriya) and therefore to the doer (karaka). In case of the location in which the action takes place, the karaka is adhikarana (Locative Case) and the case-ending the seventh (saptami).

Agni Purana: Destruction, Yoga, and Knowledge of Brahman

2009-11-03T15:18:00.000-08:00

Destruction, Pralaya

Periodically pralayas (destructions) take place. A destruction comes at the end of four thousand yugas on earth. For a hundred years there are no rains and there is widespread drought. Thereafter, Vishnu uses the rays of the sun to drink and dry up all the waters that there are on earth. Seven different suns appear in the sky and they burn up the three worlds of heaven, the earth and the underworld. The earth becomes as flat as the back of a turtle. The breath of the great snake (Shesha) also serves to burn up the three worlds.

After the three worlds have been burnt up, dark clouds full of thunder and lightning appear in the sky. For a hundred years it continue to rain. The rain puts out the fires that have been raging. From Vishnu’s breath are created tremendous winds and these drive away the clouds. But there is water everywhere. And Vishnu sleeps on these waters. For an entire kalpa he sleeps. The sages then pray to Vishnu for the three worlds to be created yet again.

Yama And Hell

When human beings die, their physical bodies are given up. But they acquire new bodies that are known as ativahika bodies. In these bodies, they are brought to Yama’s abode by Yama’s servants. Living beings other than human are not brought to Yama. Yama then decides whether the dead person should go to heaven or to hell. After he has served his time in heaven or in hell, he is born again. Yama further decides what living being the person should be born as, depending on the actions in his past life. And so the cycle of birth death and rebirth goes on and on.

Since he keeps tally of all good deeds and all sins, Yama is also known as the god Dharma. Those who have done good deeds are rewaraded by Yama and those who have committed sins are punished. Chitragupta is Yama’s accountant, he keeps the account of all punya and papa.

There are twenty-eight circles of hells with many hells located in each circle. A sinner may have to go to more than one hell depending on the sins that he has committed. Some sinners are boiled in oil, others are pierced with spears and still others are whipped. Some sinners are fed heated iron balls, others are fed blood and rubbish. There are also machines for torturing sinners. Terrible birds eat up some sinners. Other sinners have their heads cut off.

When it is time to be reborn, the killer of a brahamana is born as a deer, dog, pig or camel. A drunkard is born as a donkey. A stealer of gold is born as a worm or an insect. A killer of a brahmana may also suffer from tuberculosis. a drunkard will have teeth like a dog and a stealer of gold will malformed nails. A stealer of food is born dumb. A person who has stolen the property of brahmanas is born as a rakshasa and lives alone in the forest. A stealer of fragrant scents is born as a mole. One who steals foodgrains is born as a rat. One who steals animals is born as a goat, one who steals milk as cow, one who steals fruit as monkey and one who steals meat as a vulture. A stealer of clothes is born as a crane and a stealer of salt as a cricket.

Yoga

Yoga is the way to circumvent the miseries of life. True knowledge is that which informs one about the true nature of brahman or paramatman. The atman or jivatman is that which characterises an individual. Yoga means union, it is the union of the jivatman with the paramatman. Yoga concentrates one’s mind on the paramatman.

The first prerequisites of yoga is non-violence. A non-violent person is always righteous. The second requirement of yoga is truthfulness. The third prerequisite is celibacy. The fourth is controlling one’s senses and the last is the worship of god. One who practices yoga should not go around collecting material possessions. A piece of cloth, a covering against the cold, and a pair of sandals are possessions enough for him.

Before meditating on the true nature of the paramatman, one has to seat oneself in a proper asana (posture). The piece of cloth on which one is to sit should be placed in a clean place. One sits on such a seat and tries to purify one’s atman by controlling one’s mind and senses through yoga. The head and the neck should be held straight up, motionless. The point of vision should be directed towards the tip of one’s nose. One should not look in any direction. The arms should lightly rest on the folded thighs and the right hand should be placed, palm upwards, on the left palm. Padmasana (lotus position) is one such recommended posture.

The breath of life (prana vayu) has to be controlled. This process of control is known as pranayama. A finger is placed on the nose when the breath is being exhaled. The entire breath should be exhaled from the body. Since rechana means exhalation, this process of control is known as rechaka. When the breath is inhaled, the inhalation should be such that it fills the entire body. Since puraka literally means ‘that which fills’, this process of control is known as puraka. When the breath is neither being exhaled nor inhaled, one sits completely still like a kumbha (pot) and this is known as kumbhaka. Pranayama makes one healthy, swift, enthusiastic, strong and collected. Since the senses are controlled, one goes to heaven and avoids going to hell. Material pursuits are like the strong current of a river. The atman drowns in it.

Pranayama alone is not enough. It has to be supplemented with dhyana of japa (meditation and contemplation). One contemplates the true nature of the paramatman. The body is like a chariot. The senses are its horses, the mind is the charioteer and pranayama is the bridle. An individual who dies while performing dhyana is immediately assimilated with Vishnu.

Dhyana involve four different things, all of which must be in complete harmony. The first is the meditator, the second is the act of meditating, the third is the object that one is meditating upon and the fourth is the reason why one is performing the mediation. One does not have to; sit in a rigid posture for dhyana to be possible. It can be done while one is walking, sitting or even sleeping. The important aspect is to establish the object of one’s meditation in one’s heart.

There are different ways of establishing one’s concentration. As an object of meditation, one can meditate on three concentric circles which are black, red and white. In the centre of the circles is a divine lotus. The lotus has eight petals. One thinks that detachment is the stem of the lotus and praying to Vishnu its stamen. Right in the centre of the lotus is a pure spark of fire and that is the paramatman. Alternatively, one can visualise the paramatman in a blaze of light, in the centre of the lotus. Dhyana is far far superior to any yajna that one might perform.

One particular form of deep and intense meditation is known as samadhi. The meditator is then completely still, as calm as the ocean. He loses all track of the outside world. He does not hear, smell, see or touch. His mind has no wishes and feels nothing. He is completely united with god. Such a meditator automatically gets to know all the knowledge that can be gleaned from the Vedas or the shastras. He can obtain all the material possessions that he wants, but he regards them all as no more important than a blade of grass.

Such a meditator attains supreme knowledge. If you look at various pots full of water, you will find that the same sky is reflected in them all. Supreme knowledge tells one that, exactly similarly, it is the same atman that is everywhere. It is the atman which is the same as the paramatman, it is this atman that is in the water, in energy, in water, in the earth and in metals. The atman is everywhere.

The Knowledge of The Brahman

Brahma jnana is the knowledge of brahman. This knowledge, which gives the ultimate bliss, is nothing but the sense that the individual atman is identical with the universal brahman or paramtman. The physical body is not the atman. Nor are the senses the atman. The mind or intelligence is not the atman. Life itself is not the atman.

The atman is different from all the objects that have been mentioned above. The atman is in an individual’s heart. It sees everything and senses everything, but is different from the physical body. It is this that sages contemplate when they meditate. The sky was created from the brahman, from the sky came wind, from wind fire, from fire water, from water the earth and from the earth the five elements. One has to meditate on the physical body gradually disappearing and merging into the brahman.

The brahman is neither true nor untrue. It has neither form nor is it without form. The brahman has several parts, but at the same time it is an integral whole. The brahman cannot be described. It cannot be achieved through the power of action. The brahman is always pure. It has no ties and it is the true form of happiness. What is required is the sense that it is I, the individual, who am the brahman. I am nothing but the atman and the atman is nothing but the brahman. This sense is true knowledge. The brahman is the Lord who is the origin of everything and the individual is part of the brahman. It is this knowledge that frees one from the ties of the world and this is what brahman jnana is all about.

The brahman is not the earth; it is beyond the earth. The brahman is not the wind, nor is it the sky. The brahman has no beginning; it is independent of all action. The brahman is huge; it is everywhere. The brahman not only has no form, it is beyond all form. The brahman cannot be heard. It cannot be touched. The brahman has neither intelligence nor mind. It has no sense of ego or vanity. It does not have life, birth, old age or death.

The brahman is neither happy nor unhappy. It does not feel hungry or thirsty. It cannot be measured. At the same time, it is both nothing and everything.

Life has five possible ends. By performing yajnas one can attain heaven. By performing tapasya one can become an ascetic. By performing actions one can attain brahmaloka. By detachment from material pursuits (vairagya) one can merge oneself into nature. And by true knowledge the individual gets absorbed into the divine essence. This is known as kaivalya. Detachment means to withdraw oneself from the effects of all actions. And knowledge means the knowledge that the atman is no different from the brahman. This is known as jnana yoga (the yoga of knowledge).

There are few people who attain this knowledge. One of those was Bharata. Bharata had done a lot he became very attached to a deer and when he died, he died thinking of the deer. The result was that in his next life, Bharata was born as a deer. But the deer happened to be a jatismara, that is, it remembered its earlier life. The deer eventually died and Bharata was again born as jatismara human.

The king of Soubira was once travelling on a palanquin and he wanted someone who would bear his palanquin free of charge. The king’s servants caught hold of Bharata to bear the palanquin. But Bharata moved slowly and could not keep up with the other bearers. The palanquin did not progress and the king asked Bharata. “Why are you so tired? You have not been bearing my palanquin for long. Can’t you some toil? You look fairly strong to me.”

Bharata replied, “I am not strong. Nor am I bearing your palanquin. I am not tired. nor am I lazy. I am my atman and feet are and my body is balanced on my thighs. My shoulders are on my body and your palanquin rests on my shoulders. But I am not my feet, thighs, body or shoulders. I am the atman. The atman is not carrying you. So why do you say that I am beating you?” Bharata then instructed the king on the mysteries of true knowledge. The atman was pure, ever-lasting, calm, without traits and beyond natural characteristics. Since the atman had no traits and since an individual was the atman and not the body, it was meaningless to say that an individual was strong or weak. The physical body was made of the elements and so was the palanquin. What was the point therefore in saying that the physical body was bearing the palanquin?

Heating these words of wisdom, the king fell at Bharata’s feet. “Forgive me,” he said, “and let go of the palanquin, Who are you?”

“Who am I?”, asked Bharata. “That is not a question that can easily be answered.”

The king answered, “I fail to understand. Surely the form in which you are now existing is who you are.”

“No,” said Bharata. “I am the atman and the atman is the same as the paramatman. The paramatman is everywhere and therefore, the atman is also everywhere. I am everywhere. I am in all physical bodies. It is meaningless to ask who you are and who I am. We are all one and the same. Wood has come from the trees and this palanquin is made of wood. But is the palanquin wood or tree? When you ride on the palanquin, does anyone say that you are riding on a tree? Men, women, cows, horses, elephants, birds and trees, these are all meaningless names. They are all illusions. Everything is one and the same. I am everywhere. If there had been a place or an object where I do not exist, I could have everywhere, I do not know how to answer your question. Tell me king, are you your head or your stomach? Or is all of it, you? But then, what will you call that which is distinct from your physical body? Think about what I have said.”

Bharata’s words were so profound that the king immediately accepted Bharata as a teacher. And Bharata told the king the story of Ribhu and Nidagha.

The sage Ribhu was Brahma’s son. He was also extremely learned. Nidagha was Ribu’s disciple. After Ribhu had taught Nidagha what there was to be taught, Nidagha went to the city to see how Nidagha was getting on. Nidagha worshiped his teacher and gave him all sorts of things to eat. After Ribhu had eaten, Nidagha asked him, “Are you satisfied?”

“What do you mean?”, asked Ribhu. “The question of satisfaction would have arisen had I been hungry or thirsty. I am my atman and the atman is always satisfied. So what is the brahman that is omnipresent and so are you. You are not distinct from me, we are both part of the same whole. I came to teach you this knowledge. Now that you have learnt that the brahman is everywhere, let me leave.”

After another thousand years had passed, Ribhu came to the city again and discovered that Nidagha no longer lived in the city. He had begun to live on the outskirts of the city.

“Why have you given up living in the city?”, Ribhu asked Nidagha.

“Because I do not like to live in the city, where there is a king, “ replied Nidagha.

“Who is the king ?”. asked Ribhu. “Point him out to me in this procession that is passing. And point out to me the subjects.”

Nidagha said, “The king is the one who is as tall as a mountain peak. He is the one who is riding the elephant. The ones who are walking are the subjects.”

“What do you mean?”, asked Ribhu. “The brahman is in the king and the brahman is in the elephant. How do you distinguish one from the other, how do you say that one is riding the other? Is the king the physical body or the atman and is the elephant the physical body or the atman? Who is riding on whom? I do not understand.”

This knowledge, that the atman is the same as the brahman, is known as advaita (unified) brahma-jnana. Ribhu taught this to the king of Soubira. This is the knowledge that all elements are one and the same. It is only those who suffer from illusions who think that different elements and different beings have different identities.

The Gita

Krishna had taught Arjuna the lessons of the Gita on the plains of Kurukshetra. The Agni Purana now relates the essence of the Gita.

If physical body is alive, that is no reason for rejoicing. Just as, if the physical body is dead, that is no reason for mourning. The atman does not die. It does not decay, it cannot be destroyed and it is immortal. The atman does not warrant any tears that might be shed over it. people who are addicted to sensual pleasures cannot realise this. The person who is addicted to the atman alone has no desire for anything else. He had no action to perform. He had neither gains nor losses. The knowledge of this is like a raft that rescues one from the flood of illusions.

Agni Purana: Dreams, Omens, and the Instructions of Rama

2009-11-03T15:09:00.000-08:00

Dreams

Some dreams are bad omens. In fact, they are nightmares. Examples are: dreams about grass or trees growing on one’s body, dreams in which the dreamer is shaven-headed or is wearing shabby clothes or dreams in which one is falling form above. It is also bad to dream of marriages, singing, the killing of snakes and the killing of chandalas or animals. If you dream that you are drinking oil or eating bird meat, that is also a bad omen. Other examples are: where the dreamer dreams that he is playing with monkeys or chandalas, when he dreams that devas, brahmanas, the king or the guru is angry or when he dreams that his house had collapsed.

Remedies have to be found if one dreams such evil dreams. Brahmanas have to be worshipped, a yajna has to be performed and the dreamer has to pray to Vishnu, Shiva, Brahma, Ganesha or Surya. Dreams dreamt in the first quarter of one’s sleep normally come true over the next one year. Dreams from the second quarter come true over the next six months and dreams from the third quarter over the next three months. Dreams from the last quarter come true over the next fortnight and dreams dreamt right at dawn come true within the next ten days. If one first dreams a good dream and then an evil one, it is the evil dream the will come true. Therefore, if one dreams a good dream, one should not sleep anymore. One should immediately arise.

There are many dreams that are good dreams. For example, dreams that involve mountains, palaces or snakes. Or the dreamer might dream that he is riding on a horse or a bull. It is also good to dream of white flowers in the sky or to see trees in a dream. Especially good dreams are those of the dreamer’s possessing many arms or many heads or of grass and bushes sprouting form his navel. What if you dream of wearing white garlands or clothes? That too is good. If you dream of eclipses of the sun, the moon or the stars, by all means rejoice. And if in a dream you see that you have caught hold of the enemy’s flag, that surely means that you will triumph over the enemy. And if you actually dream of defeating the enemy, the interpretation is clear enough.

Strangely enough, a dream where the dreamer sees that he is eating rice pudding is a good dream. As is the case with dreams of drinking wine or blood. Or even of eating wet meat. A clear sky in a dream is good. Dreaming of milking a cow or a buffalo with one’s own mouth is also good. The dream continues to be a good one if one dreams of milking a lioness or a she-elephant thus. Other dreams which have good interpretations are, for example, dreams of the dreamer’s receiving blessings form devas or brahmanas or of being anointed with water.

The dreamer who dreams of his coronation is blessed. And he is doubly blessed if he dreams that his head has been cut off or that he has died or even that his house has been burnt down. The relatives of such a dreamer increase in number and he also prospers. It is good to dream of musical instruments being played. Or of riding a bull or climbing a tree. Wet clothes, trees laden with fruit and clear blue skies in dreams are especially good.

Omens and Signs

If one is about to go out of the house, one should take care of any bad omens that there might be. Such bad omens are cotton, dried grass, cowdung, coal, molasses, leather, hair, a lunatic, a chandala, a widow, a dead body, ashes, bones and a broken vessel. If one comes across these as one is about to leave, one should not start without pacifying the elements through prayers to Vishnu. The sound of musical instruments is not an auspicious sound at the beginning of a journey. If the means of transport by which one is travelling breaks down, that too, is a bad omen. If weapons break, perhaps you should postpone the journey. The same is the case if an umbrella held over one’s head happens to fall. If one hits one’s head against the lintel of the door as one is about too cross the threshold, prayers are again indicated. And never call back someone who has just left. That is a bad omen and bodes ill for the success of the journey.

There are good omens for a departure and if one sees these good omens, the journey is bound to be successful. Good omens are white flowers, full vessels, meat, distant noises, an old goat, a cow, a horse, an elephant, fire, gold silver, a sword, an umbrella, fruit, clarified butter, curds, a conch shell, sugarcane, the sound of thunder, lightning and a dead body with no one crying over it.

Omens are important even if one is not going on a journey. A peacock crying on the left means that something is going to be stolen. If a donkey brays with a broken voice, that is good omen and something good will happen. If a boar or a buffalo crosses over from the left to the right, that is a good omen. But if they cross over from the right to the left, that is a bad omen. One’s desires will be attained if horses, tigers, lions, cats or donkeys cross over from the right to the left. jackals, moles, lizards, pigs and cuckoos are good omens or the left and monkeys are good omens on the right. If a jackal calls once, twice, thrice or four times, that is a good omen. It is a bad omen if a jackal calls five or six times. It is a very good omen if a jackal calls seven times.

If crows caw on the left of an army, the soldiers will not be able to win. If a crow can be seen near the door a house, this means that there will soon be a guest. A crow looking at the sum with one eye signifies great danger. A crow covered with mud means the attainment of one’s desires. A dog barking inside the house leads to the death of the householders. A person whose left limbs are sniffed by a dog, will attain riches. If the right limbs are sniffed, there will be danger. A dog blocking one’s path signifies theft. A dog with a bone or a rope in its mouth means the loss of property. But it is a good omen to see a dog with meat in its mouth.

Cows mooing irregularly mean threats to the master of the house. If this happens at night, there will be a theft or a death in the house. If the cows have horns that are wet or daubed with mud, that is a good sign for the householders. A cow that plays with cranes or doves is bound to die. A cow that licks its feet is also destined to die. If an elephant strikes its right foot with its left, that is a good sign. Prosperity comes if an elephant rubs its right tusk with its foot.

There is great danger if an umbrella falls just as one is about to leave on a trip. Journeys are to be avoided if the stars are not favourable.

Battle

Once a king decides to go out to battle, seven days are needed for preliminaries. On the first day, Vishnu, Shiva and Ganesha have to be worshipped. On the second day the dikpalas (guardians of all the directions) are worshipped, the Rudras on the third day, the planets and the stars on the fourth day and the two Ashvinis and the rivers on the fifth day. On the sixth day, the king has ceremonial bath in honour of the victory that is to come. And on the seventh day, the king leaves to do battle.

Prior to the marching, the army must always assemble to the east of the capital city. The start of the march must be accompanied with the playing of musical instruments. Once the army has begun to march, it must never look back. After having travelled for a couple of miles, it must stop to rest any pray to the gods and the brahmanas.

The king must never directly fight. Because if the king is killed, the battle is lost. The king must be right behind his army, not too far away from it. An elephant will be guarded by four chariots, a chariot by four horses and a horse by four infantrymen. The infantry will also be at the front of army, followed by archers and then by the horses. The chariots and the elephants come last of all. The cowards in the army must not be in the front, they must be at the back. The front is for the brave soldiers. To the extent possible, one should fight with the sun behind one’s army.

If a soldier dies in the course of battle, he goes straight to heaven. The blood of brave men wash away all sins. To be struck with a weapon is better than to perform many sacrifices. A person who flees form the field of battle performs a sin that is worse than that of killing a brahmana.

The fight should be between equals. Those who are running away should not be killed. Nor should spectators and those who are unarmed be killed. An enemy captured in battle should not be kept imprisoned. He should be released and treated like a son.

Rama's Teachings

Rama had once taught Lakshmana about the duties of a king. The Agni Purana now relates these precepts of Rama’s.

The duties of king are fourfold. Firstly, he has to earn wealth. Secondly, he has to increase it. Thirdly, he has to protect it. And fourthly and finally, he has to donate it. The king must also be polite and politeness comes through the conquering of the senses. The king must be humble. The senses are like mad elephants. If the senses are pampered, like mad elephants, they trample politeness and humility underfoot.

The king must also be non-violent, truthful, clean and forgiving. He should take care to observe all the rituals. He should give food to those who are poor, he should protect those who seek royal protection. He should always use words that are pleasant to hear. The body is here today and gone tomorrow. Stupid is the king who deviates form the path of righteousness to give pleasure to a body that is transient. The curses of unhappy people are enough to bring down a king.

There is only one difference between gods and animals. Gods use pleasant word, while animals use rough words. The king must use pleasant words like a god. And he must use pleasant words not only for those who are his friends or are good, but also for those who are his enemies or are evil. With obeisance the king pleases his guru, with good behaviour the righteous, with duties the gods, with live the servants and with alms those who are inferior.

The kingdom has seven components. These are the king, the ministers, the friends, the treasury, the army, the forts and the state itself. Of these, the most important is the state and it has to be preserved at all costs. The king must be extremely careful in the choice of the ministers and the royal priest. The king must not choose or consult ministers who are stupid.

The king’s signs are his golden rod or sceptre and an umbrella that is held over his head. The umbrella should be made of the feathers of swans, peacocks or cranes, but the feathers of different types of birds should not be mixed in the same umbrella. The throne should be made of wood and should be embellished with gold. A bow can be made of iron, horn or wood. The best bow is one that extends over four armlengths. The king can spend upto one year’s tax revenue on armaments and flags.

The City of Dvaraka, Part 3

2009-11-03T15:00:00.000-08:00

Dwarkadish Temple

Krishna's Fight with Salwa

Accompanied by an army consisting of the four kinds of forces so persevering in battle, Krishna set out from Dwaraka. And crossing many countries, and mountains, crowned with trees, and pieces of water, and streams, he at last arrived at the country of Matrikavarta (alias Matika). There, Krishna got the intelligence that Salwa was coursing on his car of precious metals near the ocean. Krishna followed in his pursuit.

Having reached the main force, Salwa on his car of costly metals was in the midst of the deep heaving with billows! Salwa challenged Krishna repeatedly to fight. Many arrows discharged from Krishna's bow didn't reach his car. Salwa began to shoot thousand upon thousands of arrows in torrents! He rained shafts upon soldiers. But without thinking of the shafts, Krishna continued the conflict. As that car of costly metals was in the sky (or in ocean?), a full two miles off, it could not be seen by Krishna's troops. They could therefore only remaining on the field of battle look on like spectators in a place of amusement.

Krishna shot arrows at the car, which penetrated into the bodies of the Danavas. Then there arose cries in the car of precious metals from those that were dying of wounds by those sharp arrows, falling into the waters of the mighty ocean. The Danavas deprived of their arms, necks, and wearing the form of Kavandhas, fell, sending up tremendous roars. And as they fell animals living in the waters of the ocean devoured them.

Seeing his soldiers fall, Salwa began to fight with the help of illusion. Then he began to ceaselessly hurl at Krishna, maces, and ploughshares, and winged darts and lances, and javelins, and battle-axes, and swords and arrows blazing like javelins and thunderbolts, and nooses, and broad swords, and bullets from barrels, and shafts, and axes, and rockets. He began the contest with mountain peaks (large boulders?). Then there was darkness and light alternately, and the day was now fair, and now gloomy, and now hot, and now cold. And there was a perfect shower of coals, and ashes, and weapons. Then the dome of heaven blazed as with a hundred suns, and with one hundred moons, and thousands and ten thousands of stars! And then none could ascertain whether it was day or night, or distinguish the points of the horizon. Becoming bewildered, Krishna fixed on my bowstring the weapon called Pragnastra. Having regained, light, Krishna again fought with the enemy! (3,20)

Salwa gives False Intelligence to Krishna

A certain person, having his home in Dwaraka, quickly coming to Krishna's car, addressed him like a friend, delivering to Him a message from Ahuka. He seemed to be one of Ahuka’s followers. Sadly and in a voice choked in sorrow, he said words: "O warrior, Ahuka, the lord of Dwaraka, hath said these words unto thee! O Krishna, hear what thy father’s friend sayeth: in thy absence today Salwa, coming to Dwaraka, hath by main force killed Vasudeva, your father! Therefore, no need of battle any more. Cease, O Krishna! Do thou defend Dwaraka." (3,21)

Disregarding this false information, though temporarily stunned by it, Krishna continued the fight.

Krishna Slays Salwa and Destroys Saubha City

This last part of the war seems to have been fought in an island in the midst of the ocean, Saubha apparently being a city in that island. Salwa's troops made a shower of boulders at Krishna and His army. Krishna managed to destroy those boulders with a weapon resembling a thunderbolt. Salwa's car was out of His visibility, but Krishna launched his Sudarsana chakra. That weapon cleft Salwa in twain, who in that fierce conflict was at the point of hurling a heavy mace. With its energy, it set the foe ablaze.

After that brave warrior was slain, the disheartened Danava women fled in all directions, exclaiming Oh! and Alas! Taking His chariot in front of the town of Saubha, Krishna cheerfully blew his conch and gladdened the hearts of His friends. Beholding their town, high as the peak of the Meru, with its palaces and gateways utterly destroyed and all ablaze, the Danavas fled in fear. Having thus destroyed the town of Saubha and slain Salwa, Krishna returned to the Anarttas and delighted all His friends. (3,22)

Many historians argue that this foe who fought with Krishna in the sky or ocean was not the Salwa of Mritikavarta. Mritikavara was a city, also known as Matika, Martika, Mritikavati, etc. It was the capital of Salwa Kingdom in Rajasthan, situated to the south-west of Madra Kingdom and to the west of Matsya Kingdom, ruled by King Virata. This Salwa came and attacked Dwaraka, to revenge the death of Sisupala and was vanquished by Pradyumna, the son of Vasudeva Krishna. The other enemy was probably an ally of this King Salwa. King Salwa could have prompted this foe to attack Dwaraka from the sea. Krishna might have got this intelligence when he reached Mritikavarta. Then Krishna urgently reached the ocean surrounding Dwaraka, where He fought this naval war. This enemy is certainly a sea-faring Danava and an Asura, probably belonging to another civilization. They might have launched this attack on Dwaraka, from their island close to the Arabian Peninsula. The name Salwa is linked with Arabia, as far as Kuwait.

Pandya's Enmity towards Dvaraka

Sarangadhwaja was the king of the Pandyas. Vasudeva Krishna invaded his country. All his kinsmen fled and his father was slain by Vasudeva Krishna in battle. Obtaining weapons then from Bhishma and Drona, Bhargava Rama and Kripa, King Sarangadhwaja became, in weapons, the equal of Rukmi and Karna and Arjuna and Krishna. He then desired to destroy the city of Dwaraka and subjugate the whole world. Wise friends, however, from desire of doing him good, counseled him against that course. Giving up all thoughts of revenge, he is now ruling his own dominions. (7,23). He later made friendship with Krishna and allied with the Pandavas in the Kurukshetra War.

Dvaraka Sinks into the Ocean

The account of Dvaraka's sinking into the ocean is found in book 16 of the Mahabharata, the Mausala-parvan.

Day by day strong winds blew. Earthen pots showed cracks or broke from no apparent cause. Society became corrupt. The day of the new moon coincided with the thirteenth (and the fourteenth) lunation. The fourteenth lunation has been made the fifteenth by Rahu once more. Such a day had happened at the time of the great battle of Bharatas. (Kurukshetra War), it has once more appeared. After that war, 36 years had passed. The messengers proclaimed at the command of Vasudeva Krishna that the Vrishnis should make a journey to the seacoast for bathing in the sacred waters of the ocean. (16.2)

The Yadavas, then with their wives, proceeded to Prabhasa and took up residence there, each in the temporary habitation that was assigned to him, and all having an abundance of provisions consisting of edibles and drink. The Vrishnis, mixing with wine the food that had been cooked for high-souled brahmanas, gave it away unto monkeys and apes. Those heroes of fierce energy then began their high revels, of which drinking formed the chief feature at Prabhasa. Then a dispute arose between Satyaki and Kritavarman on the wrongs they did in the Kurukshetra War. This dispute turned into a great massacre, in which all the Yadava heroes were slain. (16.3)

Arjuna arrived at Dwaraka and addressed the chief officers, telling them to prepare to leave Dwaraka within 7 days, as Dwaraka was going to sink into the ocean. Krishna's grandson Vajra was chosen as their King to rule at Indraprastha.

Arjuna then proceeded to the place where the Vrishnis were slaughtered. Searching out the bodies of Bala Rama and Vasudeva Krishna, Arjuna caused them to be burnt by persons skilled in that act. On the seventh day, Arjuna evacuated Dwaraka Island. After all the people had set out, the ocean flooded Dvaraka, which still teemed with wealth of every kind. Whatever portion of the ground was passed over, the ocean immediately flooded it over with his waters. Beholding this wonderful sight, the inhabitants of Dvaraka walked faster and faster. (16.7) The Pandavas, on their last journey before death, saw Dwaraka covered by ocean. (17.1)

The City of Dvaraka, Part 2

2009-11-03T14:53:00.000-08:00

Laksmi-Narayan and Garuda, Cakrananda-tirtha in Dvaraka

Sisupala's Assault on Dvaraka and Raivataka

Sisupala was the son of Srutasravas, a sister of Vasudeva Krishna's father, similar to his relation to the Pandavas. But unlike the Pandavas, this king of Chedi was his enemy. Sisupala came and burned Dwaraka while Krishna and his army were at Pragjyotisha Kingdom. While king Bhoja was sporting on the Raivataka hill, he fell upon the attendants of that king and slew many, leading many of them away in chains to his own city. (2,44)

Salwa's Attack on Dvaraka

The attack by Salwa on Dwaraka is a much-debated topic, since it undoubtedly has the signs of being an aerial warfare. Historians are of the opinion that it could be a naval attack, described in the fashion of an aerial attack. For example, the flying car or combat aircraft of Salwa, named Saubha, could actually be a navy ship. This explanation suits well, since Dwaraka was a city in a small island, surrounded by sea.

King Salwa came to Dwaraka, burning with fierce anger upon the death of Sisupala brought on by Vasudeva Krishna during the Rajasuya sacrifice of Yudhisthira at Indraprastha. Krishna was then at Indraprastha. He arrived there on a car made of precious metals and hence called the Souva (sometimes called Saubha, though a city also has that same name). He slew many young Vrishni heroes and destroyed many gardens of the city. He addressed all the Anarttas (clearly indicating that Anarta was the greater country, while Dwaraka was its capital), asking them to reveal where is Krishna. He rose into the sky on his car of precious metals, capable of going anywhere at will.

The Salwa King's capital was mentioned here as Maticka. Salwa considered Sisupala as his brother. When Krishna came back to the city, He saw the destroyed Dwaraka and the slain heroes. Krishna went in search of Salwa and found him in an island, in the midst of the ocean. (3,14)

The Fortification of Dwaraka

Salwa, stationing his forces in array, besieged that city around and above. And stationing himself in the upper regions, the king began his fight with the city. And that encounter commenced with a thick shower of weapons from all sides. The city at that time was well-fortified on all sides, according to the science (of fortification), with pennons, and arches, and combatants, and walls and turrets, and engines, and miners, and streets barricaded with spiked wood-works and towers and edifices with gate-ways well-filled with provisions, and engines for hurling burning brands and fires, and vessels, of deer-skins (for carrying water), and trumpets, tabors, and drums, lances and forks, and Sataghnis, and plough-shares, rockets, balls of stone and battle-axes and other weapons and shields embossed with iron, and engines for hurling balls and bullets and hot liquids!

And the city was also well-defended by numerous cars. Yadava heroes (Gada, Samva, Uddhava) placing themselves on commanding posts, aided by cavalry and standard-bearers, began to defend the town. (3,15)

High alert proclaimed in the city

To prevent carelessness, Ugrasena, Uddhava and others proclaimed throughout the city that nobody should drink. All the Vrishnis and the Andhakas, well-knowing that they would be slain by Salwa if they behaved carelessly, remained sober and watchful. The police soon drove out of the city all mimes and dancers and singers of the Anartta country. And all the bridges over rivers were destroyed, and boats forbidden to ply, and the trenches (around the city) were spiked with poles at the bottom.

The land around the city for a full two miles was rendered uneven, and holes and pits were dug thereon, and combustibles were secreted below the surface. Dwaraka fort is naturally strong and always well-defended and filled with all kinds of weapons! And in consequence of the preparations made, the city was more prepared than ever to meet the foe. (3,15)

Identity Signs were Made Strict

At the time of Salwa’s approach, nobody could either enter or leave the town of the Vrishnis and the Andhakas without presenting the sign that had been agreed upon. And all the streets of the town and the open spaces were filled with numerous elephants and horses. The combatants were all especially gratified with allowances and wages, and rations, weapons, and dresses. And amongst the combatants there was none who was not paid in gold, and none who was not paid at all, and none who was not somehow obliged, and none who was not of tried valour! It was thus Dwaraka, abounding in well-ordered arrangements, was defended by Ahuka (Ugrasena). (3,15)

Camping of Salwa's Army

Kings, Salwa, the lord of Saubha, came towards our city with an immense force consisting of infantry, cavalry and elephants! And the army headed by king Salwa, consisting of four kings of forces, occupied a level ground commanding a copious water-supply. And forsaking cemeteries and temples dedicated to the gods, and sacred trees, and grounds covered by anthills, that host occupied every other place. Divisions of the army blocked the roads (leading to the city), and the enemy’s camp also blocked all the secret entrances. Salwa's host was equipped with all kinds of arms, skilled in all weapons, consisting of a dense display of cars and elephants and cavalry abounding in banners, and well-paid and well-fed foot-soldiers possessed of great strength and bearing every mark of heroism and furnished with wonderful chariots and bows. (3,16)

The Battle outside Dvaraka

Beholding the army of Salwa, the youthful princess of the Vrishni race resolved to encounter it sallying out of the city. Charudeshna, Samva, and Pradyumna sailed out, ascending on their chariots, and clad in mail, and decked with ornaments, with colours flying, resolved to encounter the mighty and countless host of Salwa. Samva caused Salwa's general Kshemavriddhi to flee. He slew Vegavat. Charudeshna slew Vivindhya. Salwa defeated Pradyumna but Pradyumna's driver bore him away. He came back after regaining strength and attacked Salwa and made him flee. When Vasudeva Krishna came back from Indraprastha there were no sounds of Vedic recitation or sacrificial offering, the excellent damsels were all destitute of ornaments, and the gardens were devoid of beauty. (3-16,17,181,191,20)

The City of Dvaraka

2009-11-03T14:44:00.000-08:00

Lord Krishna in the Golden City of Dvaraka
Illustration from Harivamsha, c. 1600

Dvaraka (meaning "the many-gated city") is the capital of the Yadavas who ruled the Anarta Kingdom. The city was situated on the western point of Gujarat, and became submerged in the sea, as described in Volume 16 of the epic Mahabharata.

Dwaraka was founded by a clan of Yadava chiefs who fled from the Surasena Kingdom out of fear of King Jarasandha of Magadha. The territory of Dwaraka included the Dwaraka Island, many neighbouring islands like the Antar Dwipa, and the mainland area neighbouring the Anarta Kingdom.

Dwaraka was a federation of many republics rather than a kingdom under a single king, the title of king of the Dwaraka-confederation being only titular. Within the Federation of Dwaraka were included the states of Andhakas, Vrishnis and Bhojas. The Yadavas ruling Dwaraka were also known as Dasarhas and Madhus.

Prominent Yadava chiefs residing in Dwaraka included Vasudeva Krishna, Bala Rama, Satyaki, Kritavarma, Uddhava, Akrura and Ugrasena.

Dwaraka and Kusasthali

Kusasthali was the older city, upon which the city of Dwaraka was built during the time of Vasudeva Krishna. From fear of Jarasandha, Yadavas had to leave Mathura and flee west to the city of Dwaravati. (2,14). There was a delightful town towards the west called Kusasthali, adorned by the mountains of Raivata. In that city, they took up their abode. They rebuilt its fort and made it so strong that it became impregnable, and from within it, even the women might fight the foe.

At Kusasthali, there was held a conclave of the Devas. Kuvera went to that place surrounded by grim visaged Yakshas, numbering three hundred maha-padmas, and carrying various weapons. (3,160)

Arjuna's Visit

Pandava Arjuna made a visit to Dwaraka at the end of his 12 year pilgrimage of holy places of ancient India (Bharata Varsha). From Indraprastha (Delhi), the Pandava capital, he went to the Himalayas, then to east and reached the eastern sea. Then he travelled along the coast to the south and then reached southern ocean. From there he went north along the western shore of India, to reach the area known as Prabhasa (the southern shore of Gujarat). From there Vasudeva Krishna, his friend, accompanied him and took him to the Raivataka mountains and to Dwaraka, which was not far away.

The Raivataka Mountain
Raivataka is apparently a hill resort in the mainland, close to the city of Dwaraka. Krishna and Arjuna having sported as they liked, for some time at Prabhasa, went to the Raivataka Mountain to pass some days there. Before they arrived at Raivataka, that mountain had, at the command of Krishna been well-adorned by many artificers. At Krishna’s command, much food had also been collected there. Enjoying everything that had been gathered there for him, Arjuna sat with Vasudeva to see the performances of the actors and the dancers. Then the high-souled Pandava, dismissing them all with proper respect, laid himself down on a well-adorned and excellent bed. He rose in the morning, awakened, by sweet songs and melodious notes of the Vina (guitar) and the panegyrics and benedictions of the bards. (1,220)

The Reception at Dwaraka

Riding upon a golden chariot, Arjuna then set out for Dwaraka, the capital of the Yadavas. For honouring him, the city of Dwaraka was well-adorned, including all the gardens and houses within it. The citizens of Dwaraka, desirous of beholding the son of Kunti, began to pour eagerly into the public thoroughfares by the hundreds of thousands. In the public squares and thoroughfares, throngs of women, mixing with the men, swelled the great crowd of the Bhojas, the Vrishnis, and the Andhakas, that had collected there.

Arjuna was welcomed with respect by all the sons of Bhojas, the Vrishnis, and the Andhakas. And he, in his turn, worshipped those that deserved his worship, receiving their blessings. The hero was welcomed with affectionate reception by all the young men of the Yadava tribe. He repeatedly embraced all that were equal to him in age. Wending then to the delightful mansion of Krishna that was filled with gems and every article of enjoyment, he took up his abode there with Krishna for many days. (1,220)

The Mountain-festival at Raivataka

Mountain worship was a common feature of the religion of Yadavas. When they were at Surasena Kingdom, they worshipped the Govardhana Mountain, which is detailed in the Bhagavata Purana

There commenced on the Raivataka Mountain a grand festival of the Vrishnis, the Bhojas, and the Andhakas. The region around that hill was adorned with many a mansion decked with gems and many an artificial tree of gaudy hue. The musicians struck up in concert and the dancers began to dance and the vocalists to sing. And the youth of the Vrishni race, endued with great energy, adorned with every ornament, and riding in their gold-decked chariots, looked extremely handsome. The citizens, some on foot and some in excellent chariots, with their wives and followers were there by hundreds and thousands. (1,221)

Another Occasion of Raivataka Festival

Adorned with many beautiful things and covered with diverse Koshas made of jewels and gems, the Raivataka hill shone with great splendour. With many golden poles on which were lighted lamps, shone in beauty through day and night. By the caves and fountains the light was so great that it seemed to be broad day. On all sides beautiful flags waved on the air with little bells that jingled continuously. The entire hill resounded with the melodious songs of men and women. It was adorned with many shops and stalls filled with diverse viands and enjoyable articles. There were heaps of cloths and garlands, and the music of Vinas and flutes and Mridangas was heard everywhere. Food mixed with wines of diverse kinds was stored here and there. Gifts were being ceaselessly made to those that were distressed, or blind, or helpless. There were many sacred abodes built on the breast of that mountain. (14,59)

Abduction of Subhadra by Arjuna

During Raivataka festival, Arjuna fell in love with Vasudeva Krishna's sister, Subhadra. He took the maiden away with the secret consent of Krishna, but provoked the anger of other Yadava heroes. This passage described the preparedness of the citizens of Dwaraka for an emergency

The armed attendants of Subhadra, beholding her thus seized and taken away, all ran, crying towards the city of Dwaraka. Reaching all together the Yadava court called by the name of Sudharma, they represented everything about the prowess of Arjuna unto the chief officer of the court. The chief officer of the court blew his gold-decked trumpet calling all to arms. Stirred up by that sound, the Bhojas, the Vrishnis, and the Andhakas began to pour in from all sides. Those that were eating left their food, and those that were drinking left their drink. Those tigers among men, those great warriors of the Vrishni and the Andhaka tribes, took their seats upon their thousand thrones. The chief officer of the court, assisted by those that stood at his back, spoke of the conduct of Arjuna. The proud Vrishni heroes, of eyes red with wine rose up from their seats, unable to brook what Arjuna had done. Some amongst them said, ‘Yoke our chariots’, and some, ‘Bring our weapons’ and some said, ‘Bring our costly bows and strong coats of mail; and some loudly called upon their charioteers to harness their chariots, and some, from impatience, themselves yoked their horses decked with gold unto their chariots. (1,222)

Arjuna was later called back to Dwaraka, and Subhadra was married to him. He stayed there for one year. He spent the last year of his 12-year pilgrimage at Pushkara (Pushkar in Rajasthan) and then went back to Indraprastha.

Vedic Origins of the Zodiac

2009-11-03T14:33:00.000-08:00

Some scholars have claimed that the Babylonians invented the zodiac of 360 degrees around 700 BCE, perhaps even earlier. Many claim that India received the knowledge of the zodiac from Babylonia or even later from Greece. However, as old as the Rig Veda, the oldest Vedic text, there are clear references to a chakra or wheel of 360 spokes placed in the sky. The number 360 and its related numbers like 12, 24, 36, 48, 60, 72, 108, 432 and 720 occur commonly in Vedic symbolism. It is in the hymns of the great Rishi Dirghatamas (RV I.140 - 164) that we have the clearest such references.

Dirghatamas is one of the most famous Rig Vedic Rishis. He was the reputed purohit or chief priest of King Bharata (Aitareya Brahmana VIII.23), one of the earliest kings of the land, from which India as Bharata (the traditional name of the country) was named.

Dirghatamas was one of the Angirasa Rishis, the oldest of the Rishi families, and regarded as brother to the Rishi Bharadvaja, who is the seer of the sixth book of the Rig Veda. Dirghatamas is also the chief predecessor of the Gotama family of Rishis that includes Kakshivan, Gotama, Nodhas and Vamadeva (seer of the fourth book of the Rig Veda), who along with Dirghatamas account for almost 150 of the 1000 hymns of the Rig Veda. His own verses occur frequently in many Vedic texts, a few even in the Upanishads.

The hymns of Dirghatamas speak clearly of a zodiac of 360 degrees, divided in various ways, including by three, six and twelve, as well as related numbers of five and seven. We must remember that the zodiac is first of all a mathematical division of the heavens such as this hymn outlines. This is defined mainly according to the elements, qualities and planetary rulerships of the twelve signs. The symbols we ascribe to these twelve divisions is a different factor that can vary to some degree. The actual stars making up the constellation that goes along with the sign is yet a third factor. For example, some constellations are less or more than thirty degrees, but the mathematical or harmonic division of each sign will only be thirty degrees. What is important about the hymns of Dirghatamas is that he shows the mathematical basis of such harmonic divisions of a zodiac of 360 degrees.

For Dirghatamas, as was the case for much of later Vedic astronomy, the main God of the zodiac is Vishnu. Vishnu rules over the highest heaven and is sometimes identified with the pole star or polar point, which in the unique view of Vedic astronomy is the central point that governs all celestial motions and form which these are calculated.

According to Dirghatamas Rig Veda I.155.6, "With four times ninety names (caturbhih sakam navatim ca namabhih), he (Vishnu) sets in motion moving forces like a turning wheel (cakra)." This suggests that even in Vedic times Vishnu had 360 names or forms, one for each degree of the zodiac. A fourfold division may correspond to the solstices and equinoxes. Elsewhere Dirghatamas states, I.164.36, "Seven half embryos form the seed of the world. They stand in the dharma by the direction of Vishnu." This probably refers to the seven planets.

Most of the astronomical information occurs in his famous Asya Vamasya Hymn I.164. Much of this hymn can be understood as a description of the zodiac. It begins:

1. Of this adorable old invoker (the Sun) is a middle brother who is pervasive (the Wind or lightning). He has a third brother, whose back carries ghee (Fire). There I saw the Lord of the people (the Sun) who has seven children.

This verse is referring to the usual threefold Vedic division of Gods and worlds as the Fire (Agni) on Earth, the Wind or Lightning (Vayu) in the Atmosphere and the Sun (Surya) in Heaven. This also may refer to the three steps or strides of Vishnu through which he measures the Earth, the Atmosphere and Heaven. The Sun is also a symbol of the supreme light or the supreme Sun God that is Vishnu. The Sun or supreme light has seven children, the visible Sun, Moon and five planets.

We should note that the zodiac of twelve signs is divided into three sections based upon a similar understanding, starting with Aries or fire (cardinal fire ruled by Mars, who in Vedic thought is the fire born of the Earth), then with Leo or the Sun (fixed fire ruled by the Sun), and then with Sagittarius, the atmospheric fire, lightning or wind (mutable fire ruled by Jupiter, the God of the rains).

2. Seven yoke the chariot that has a single wheel (chakra). One horse that has seven names carries it. The wheel has three naves, is undecaying and never overcome, where all these beings are placed.

The zodiac is the single wheeled-chariot or circle yoked by the seven planets which are all forms of the Sun or sunlight. It is the wheel of time on which all beings are placed. The Vedic horse (ashva) is symbolic of energy or propulsive force.

3. This chariot which the seven have mounted has seven wheels (chakras) and is carried by seven horses. The seven sisters sing forth together, where are hidden the seven names of the cows.

The seven planets create their seven rotations or seven wheels. Each has its horse, its energy or velocity. Each has its feminine power or sister, its power of expression. It carries its own hidden name or secret knowledge (symbolically cows or rays). This refers to the astrological influences of the planets.

11. The wheel of law with twelve spokes does not decay as it revolves around heaven. Oh Fire, here your 720 sons abide.

The circle of the zodiac has twelve signs. It has 720 half degrees or twins, making 360 total. The Shatapatha Brahmana X.5.5, a late Vedic text, also speaks of a wheel of heaven with 720 divisions. "But indeed that Fire-altar is also the Nakshatras. For there are twenty seven of these Nakshatras and twenty-seven secondary Nakshatras. This makes 720." Twenty-seven times twenty-seven Nakshatras equals 729, with which some overlap can be related to the 720 half-degrees of the zodiac.

12. The Father with five feet and twelve forms, they say, dwells in the higher half of heaven full of waters. Others say that he is the clear-seeing one who dwells below in a sevenfold wheel that has six spokes.

The five feet of the father or the Sun are the five planets or the five elements that these often refer to (to which Vedic thought associates the five sense organs and five motor organs in the human body). His twelve forms are the twelve signs. The Sun in the higher half of heaven with the waters is the signs Leo with Cancer (ruled by the Moon), with the other five planets being the five feet, each ruling two signs. In Vedic thought, the Sun is the abode of the waters, which we can see in the zodiac by the proximity of the signs Cancer and Leo.

The sevenfold wheel is the zodiac moved by the seven planets. The six spokes are the six double signs through which the planets travel. The same verse occurs in the Prashna Upanishad I.11 as a symbol for the year.

13. Revolving on this five-spoked wheel all beings stand. Though it carries a heavy load, its axle does not over heat. From of old it does not break its ancient laws.

The five-spoked wheel is again the zodiac ruled by five planets and five elements and their various internal and external correspondences.

14. The undecaying wheel (circle) together with its felly (circumference), ten yoked to the upward extension carry it. The eye of the Sun moves encompassing the region. In it are placed all beings.

This may again refer to the ten signs ruled by the five planets, with each planet ruling two signs. The eye of the Sun may be the sign Leo through which the solar influence pervades the zodiac or just the Sun itself. The upward extension may be the polar region.

15. Of those that are born together, the seventh is born alone. The six are twins (yama), Divine born rishis. The wishes that they grant are apportioned according to their nature. Diversely made for their ordainer, they move in different forms.

The six born together or are twins are the twelve signs, two of which are ruled by one planet (considering the Sun and Moon as a single planetary influence). The seventh that is singly born is the single light that illumines all the planets. Elsewhere the Rig Veda X.64.3 speaks of the Sun and Moon as twins (yama) in heaven.

The planets are often associated with the rishis in Vedic thought, particularly the rishis Brihaspati (Jupiter), Shukra (Venus) and Kashyapa (the Sun) which became common names for the planets. Their ordainer or stabilizer may be the pole star (polar point).

48. Twelve are its fellies. The wheel is one. It has three naves. Who has understood it? It are held together like spokes the 3 60, both moving and non-moving.

This perhaps the clearest verse that refers to the zodiac of twelve signs and three hundred and sixty degrees. The same verse also occurs in Atharva Veda (X.8.4). The zodiac has three divisions as fire, lightning and Sun or Aries, Sagittarius and Leo that represent these three forms of fire. The 360 spokes are the 360 degrees which revolve in the sky but remain in the same place in the zodiac.

Yet another verse (43) of this same hymn of Dirghatamas refers to the Vishuvat, the solstice or equinox, showing that such astronomical meanings are clearly possible.

If we examine the hymn overall, we see that a heavenly circle of 360 degrees and 12 signs is known, along with 7 planets. It also has a threefold division of the signs which can be identified with that of fire, wind (lightning) and Sun (Aries, Sagittarius, Leo) and a sixfold division that can be identified with the planets each ruling two signs of the zodiac. This provides the basis for the main factors of the zodiac and signs as we have known them historically. We have all the main factors for the traditional signs of the zodiac except the names and symbols of each individual sign. This I will address in another article.

Elsewhere in Vedic literature is the idea that when the Creator created the stars he assigned each an animal of which there were originally five, the goat, sheep, cow, horse and man (Shatapatha Brahmana X.2.1). This shows a Vedic tradition of assigning animals to constellations. The animals mentioned are the man, goat, ram, bull and horse, which contain several of the zodiacal animals.

The zodiac in Vedic thought is the wheel of the Sun. It is the circle created by the Sun’s rays. The Shatapatha Brahmana X.5.4 notes, "But, indeed, the Fire-altar also is the Sun. The regions are its enclosing stones, and there are 360 of these, because 360 regions encircle the Sun on all sides. And 360 are the rays of the Sun."

The Zodiac and the Subtle Body

Clearly this hymn contains a vision of the zodiac but its purpose is not simply astronomical, nor is the zodiac the sole subject of its concern. Besides the outer zodiac of time and the stars there is the inner zodiac or the subtle body and its chakra system. The seven chakras mentioned are also the seven chakras of the subtle body. In Vedic thought the Sun that rules time outwardly corresponds inwardly to Prana, the spirit, soul or life-force (Maitrayani Upanishad VI.1). Prana is the inner Sun that creates time at a biological level through the process of breathing. It is also the energy that runs up and down the spine and flows through the seven chakras strung like lotuses along it.

According to Vedic thought (Shatapatha Brahmana XII.3.28) we have 10,800 breaths by day and by night or 21,600 a day. This corresponds to one breath every four seconds. The same text says that we have as many breaths in one muhurta (1/30 of a day or 48 minutes) as there are days and nights in the year or 720, so this connection of the outer light and our inner processes is quite detailed at an early period.

In Vedic thought the subtle body is composed of the five elements, the five sense organs and five motor organs, which correspond to different aspects of its five lower chakras .On top of these five are the mind and intellect (manas and buddhi) which are often compared to the Moon and the Sun and relate to the two higher chakras. They can be added to these other five factors, like the five planets, making seven in all. The chakras of Dirghatamas, though outwardly connected to the zodiac, are inwardly related to the subtle body, a connection that traditional commentators on the hymn like Sayana or Atmananda have noted.

This hymn of Dirghatamas contains many other important and cryptic verses on various spiritual matters that are connected to but go beyond the issues of the zodiac. It is written in the typical Vedic mantric and symbolic language to which it provides two keys;

39. The supreme syllable of the chant in the supreme ether, in which all the Gods reside, those who do not know this, what can they do with the Veda? Those who know it alone are gathered here.

45. Four are the levels of speech. Those trained in the knowledge, the wise know them all. Three hidden in secrecy cannot be do not stir. Mortals speak only with the fourth.

There is clearly a hidden knowledge behind these verses, which reflect an esoteric tradition of spiritual knowledge that was mainly accessible for initiates who had the keys to open its veils. We cannot simply take such verses superficially but must look deeply and see what they imply. Then the pattern of their inner meaning can come forth. If we do this, the astronomical and astrological side cannot be ignored.

Pingree’s Views

Western scholars of the history of astronomy like David Pingree have accepted the astronomical basis of this hymn. In an article, "Astronomy in India" in Astronomy Before the Telescope, C. Walker (ed.), St. Martin's Press, New York, 1996, pps. 123-124, Pingree suggests that Mul. Apin, Babylonian tablets that date from 687 to 500 BC has "’an ideal calendar' in which one year contains 12 months, each of which has 30 days, and consequently exactly 360 days; a late hymn of the Rgveda refers to the same ‘ideal calendar’. And Mul.Apin describes the oscillation of the rising-point of the sun along the eastern horizon between its extremities when it is at the solstices; the same oscillation is described in the Aitareya Brahmana.’" This ideal calendar is the basis for the zodiac and its twelve signs at a mathematical level. Clearly Pingree is referring to Rig Veda I.164 as his ‘late’ hymn of the Rig Veda.

To quote from David Pingree’s "History of mathematical astronomy in India," in the Dictionary of Scientific Biography, C.S. Gillespie (ed.), pp. 533-633, Charles Scribners, New York, 1981, page 534: "In the case of the priority of the Rgveda to the brahmanas, it is not always clear that the views expressed in the latter developed historically after the composition of the former. All texts that can reasonably be dated before ca. 500 BC are here considered to represent essentially a single body of more or less uniform material." The point of his statement is to try to get such Rig Veda references as those of Dirghatamas later than the Brahmana texts as both reflect a similar sophisticated astronomy, which is necessary to make it later than the Babylonian references and a product of a Babylonian influence as he proposes. This requires reducing all the layers of Vedic literature to a more or less uniform mass at a very late date, which is contrary to almost every view of the text.

Clearly this Rig Veda hymn, which has parallels and developments in the Brahmanas (like the Shatapatha Brahmana quoted in this chapter), must be earlier and show that such ideas were much older than the Brahmanas. To maintain his late date for Vedic astrology, Pingree must assume that this hymn or its particular astronomical verses were late interpolations to the Rig Veda, around 500 BCE or about the time of the Buddha. This is rather odd because the Buddha is generally regarded as having come long after the Vedic period, while the actual text is usually dated well before 1000 BCE (some have argued even to 3000 BCE).

Even the Brahmanas, like the Upanishads that come after them, are pre-Buddhist by all accounts. Perhaps the main Vedic ritual given in the Brahmanas, the Gavamayana, follows the model of a year of 360 days and is divided into two halves based upon the solstices, showing that such an ‘ideal’ calendar was central to Vedic thought. That such an ideal calendar has its counterpart in the sky is well reflected in Vedic ideas saying that equate the days and nights with the Sun’s rays and with the stars (as we have noted in Shatapatha Brahmana with 720 Upanakshatras)*. The Brahmanas, we should also note, emphasize the Krittikas or the Pleiades as the first of the Nakshatras, reflecting an astronomical era of the Taurus equinox. The Shatapatha Brahmana notes that the Krittikas mark the eastern direction.

In addition, the hymn, its verses and commentaries on them are found in many places in Vedic literature, along with support references to Nakshatras. It cannot be reduced to a late addition but is an integral part of the text.

That being the case, a zodiac of 360 degrees and its twelvefold division are much older in India than any Greek or even Babylonian references that he has come up with.

Pingree also tries to reduce the ancient Vedic calendar work Vedanga Jyotish to 500 BCE or to a Babylonian influence. However, the internal date of this late Vedic text is of a summer solstice in Aslesha or 1300 BCE, information referenced by Varaha Mihira in his Brihat Samhita (III.1-2). "There was indeed a time when the Sun’s southerly course (summer solstice) began from the middle of the Nakshatra Aslesha and the northerly one (winter solstice) from the beginning of the Nakshatra Dhanishta. For it has been stated so in ancient works. At present the southerly course of the Sun starts from the beginning of Cancer and the other from the initial point of the sign Capricorn." The middle of Aslesha is 23 20 Cancer, while the beginning of Dhanishta (Shravishta) is 23 20 Capricorn. Calculating the precession accordingly, this is obviously a date of around 1300 BCE.

There are yet earlier references in the Vedas like Atharva Veda XIX.6.2 that starts the Nakshatras with Krittika (the Pleiades) and places the summer solstice (ayana) in Magha (00 - 13 20 Leo), showing a date before 1900 BCE. These I have examined in detail in my book Gods, Sages and Kings (Lotus Press). Clearly the Vedas show the mathematics for an early date for the zodiac as well as the precessional points of these eras long before the Babylonians or the Greeks supposedly gave them the zodiac.

It is not surprising that India could have invented the zodiac and circle of 360 degrees. After all, the decimal system and the use of zero came from India. In this regard, as early as the Yajur Veda, we find names for numbers starting with one, ten, one hundred and one thousand ending with one followed by twelve zeros (Shukla Yajur Veda XVII.2).

The Rig Veda has another cryptic verse that suggests its cosmic numerology. According to it the Cosmic Bull has four horns, three feet, two heads and seven hands (Rig Veda IV.58.3). This sounds like a symbolic way of presenting the great kalpa number of 4,320,000,000 years. Such large numbers for the universe are typical to Indian thought, but scholars such as Pingree would also ascribe them to a Babylonian origin. However, the literature suggests the opposite.

Sanskrit Poets and Scholars of Orissa

2009-11-03T14:22:00.000-08:00

The History of Sanskrit literature in Orissa has been divided into three broad periods, such as: (a) Early period (c. 300-1100AD), (b) Mediaeval period (1100-1500 AD), and (c) post Independence period (1568-1948 AD). The subject namely the Sanskrit poets and scholars of Orissa flourished in the reign of the Suryavamsi Gajapati Period (1435-1568 A.D.) comes under the last phase of the medieval period and early phase of the third period. The published epigraphic records, treated to be the primary sources of the history prior to the period under discussion are mainly written in Sanskrit language. It is known that the Sanskrit verses composed in various metres are incorporated in the inscriptions of Orissa from the 7th century A. D. and onwards, though in earlier epigraphic records, Sanskrit prose is seen predominant.

The Inscriptions of Orissa, published so far not only throw light on the study of various branches of learning and development of Sanskrit literature in Orissa but unfold the forgotten names of many poets and scholars and their works which have like other parts of the country enriched the Sanskrit literature of India through the ages. Hence it will not be out place to mention the name of reputed scholars of Orissa who flourished prior to the reign of Suryavamsi Gajapatis of Orissa. They are as follows:

1. Visnu Sarma - 450 A. D. - Panchatantra in five parts containing 75 stories on various problems of the society and Culture

2. Murari - 850 A. D. - Anargharaghava Nataka in seven acts based on Ramayana with depiction of Orissan Culture. It was staged at Puri district car festival.

3. Purusottama Deva - 850 A. D. - Trikandasesa, a book of Lexicon on Orissan Culture and Oriya words.

4. Krisna Mishra - 1050 A. D. - Prabodhachandrodaya Nataka, an allegorical drama in 6 acts, based on Indian philosophy.

5. Satananda acharya - 1099 A. D. - Bhasvati of Astronomy and Satanandasamgraha on Smrti.

6. Sriharsa - 1100 A. D. - Naisadhacharita in 22 cantos 2790 verses, Khandanakhandakhadya on philosophy and other works.

7. Govardhana Acharya - 1125 A. D. - Aryasaptasati containing 702 verses on Sringara sentiment.

8. Jayadeva - 1147 A. D. - Gita-govinda in 12 cantos, 24 songs 72 or 77 verses on secret sports of Radha-Krishna.

9. Vidyadhara - 1245 A. D. - Ekavali in 8 unmesa or chapters contains 314 verses on Narasigha Deva I (1238- 1264 A. D.)

10. Bhubanananda - 1275 A. D. - Aryapadesataka in 100 verses composed on various metres on various issues.

11. Vajapeyi SambhukaraMishra - 1275 A. D. - Sambhukara Paddhati on Srauta sacrifices. His other works are on smrit.

12. Sankhadhara - 1275 A. D. - Smrtisamucchaya and Natakamelaka-Natika.

13. Sridhara Svami - 1278 A. D. - Bhavarthadipika tika on Srimad-Bhagavata, Subodhinitika on Srimad Bhagavad-gita and other works.

14. Vajapeyi Vidyakara Mishra - 1330 A. D. - Nityachara Paddhati and Vidyakarapaddhati on Smrti.

15. Ramadasa Vajapeyi - 1375 A. D. - Kunda-Mandapa Laksana and other works.

16. Krsnananda Sandhivigrahika - 1365 A. D. - Sahrdyananda in 15 cantos, 935 verses.

17. Visvanatha Kaviraja - 1435 A. D. - Sahitya Darpana in 10 chapters on rhetorics, Chandrakala Natika and other works.

Among the other works some were known from the various sources and some have been noticed in other parts of the country but many have been lost forever. However the poets and scholars of later period have been highly influenced by the rich tradition of Sanskrit literature and Culture in Orissa.

The reign of Suryavamsi Gajapati dynasty begins with the advent the Emperor Gajapati Kapilendra Deva (1435-1466 A. D.) and ends with his grandson Gajapati Prataprudra Deva (1497-1535 A. D.). But the period however continues till to the death of Mukunda Deva-I who remained on the throne of Orissa from 1559-1568 A. D.

During the period under discussion a National movement grew up in the Cultural life of the Oriya as a result of which various aspects of the religion and society propagated through literary works composed in Sanskrit as well as in Oriya language. To glorify the religious places, Gods and Goddesses and the places of tourist interest some Puranic literature was developed and composed or compiled. Among such works the names of Purusottama Mahatmya, Kapila Samhita, Niladrimahodaya, Ekamra Purana, Ekamra Chandrika, Prachi Mahatmya and Viraja Mahatmya are worth mentioning. Now the names of the poets and scholars flourished during this period are noted below for general information of the scholars.

1. Gajapati Kapilendra Deva was a great hero as well as a Patroniser of scholars and himself a writer too. The authorship of a vyayoga type of uparupaka (Minor drama) named Parasurama Vijaya is attributed to him. There are five benedictory verses in the beginning of this Uparupaka in which Lord Visnu (verses I), Lord Jagannatha (verses 2, 3) Rukmini and Sri Krsna (verse) and God Siva (verse 5) have been prayed. In the following words the work eulogises Gajapati Kapilendra Deva who was like an incarnation of Parasurama.

It is known from the work that it was written and staged in the Jagannatha temple at the time of a festival prior to 1458 A. D. The work conveys the religious liberality of this great monarch.

2. Nrsingha Misra Vajapeyi, a profound scholar and a justice of the celebrated Gajapati Kapilendra Deva (1435-1446 A. D.) revived the Advaitavada of Sri Sankara and wrote Samksepasariraka vartika, a commentary on Samksepasarira of Jagadguru Sankaracharya. He spent some years of his life at Kasi and wrote there a work called Kasimimansa. But unfortunately the manuscripts of the above works have not yet been noticed. His grandfather Mrtyanjaya wrote Suddhimuktaval i, a work on Dharmasastra and father Jalesvara composed Jalesevarapaddhati on various Vedic sacrifices.

3. Kalidasa Chayani (1450 A.D.) was famous for his work Suddhichandrika a very popular work on Dharmasastra which has many Sanskrit and Oriya commentaries. The work contains only 25 verses written in Sardulavikridita metre and deals on purificatory rites at death impurity.

4. Gajapati Purusottama Deva (1497 A. D.) the son of Gajapati Kapilendra Deva, was a great conqueror and a reputed scholar like his father.

It is known that the authorship of the works, namely Muktichintamani, Gopalarchana vidhi, Nama Malika, Durogotsava and Bhubaneswari Pujapallava, have been attributed to Gajapati Purusottama Deva.

From the works noted above the (a) Muktichintamani is a smrti work in which have been discussed in 6 prakranas. The work is based mainly on the Puranas and tantras of early period and the available palm leaf manuscript of this work is dated to 22-2- 1767 A. D. The work starts with the following prayer.

This is an important work as it gives the names of a lot of Puranic and Tantric works dealing about the antiquity, importance and sanctity of Purusottama that were being used before the middle of the 15th century.

Gopalarchanavidhi also called Niladrimahodaya. Pujavidhi and Gopalapujapaddhati is a work which deals on the procedure of worship of Lord Jagannatha at Puri. The conception of Jagannatha as Gopal Krsna is recognised and proclaimed by this work, which is a landmark in the religious history of Orissa.

The work called Namamalika noticed in the Descriptive catalog of Sanskrit manuscripts published by the Asiatic society of Bengal may be a work of Purusottama Deva, the lexicographer of Orissa. The work Durgotsava referred in later smrti works of Orissa has not been noticed as yet. His other work called Bhubaneswaripujapallava is a Tantra of Sakta cult. This is a small but historically important work as it gives authentic information about the accession of Purusottama Deva on the throne of Orissa by the mercy of Gajapati Kapilendrs Deva who died in a fort on the Krsna river in 1466 A. D. in spite of the fact that he was minor and not the eldest son of his father. Unfortunately this has not been published for various reasons, Another work, Abhinavavenisamhara, a minor drama attributed to Gajapati Purusottama Deva, has also not yet been published.

5. Rajaguru Balabhadra Misra, son of Nrusingha Mishra was the royal preceptor of Gajapati Purusottama Deva. He was proficient in Bhatta Tantra. He wrote three works named Advita Chintamani, Sarirakasara-Purusottama-smrti and Balabhadra Samgraha which have been quoted in later smrti works of Orissa.

6. Gajapati Prataprudra Deva (147-1535 A.D.), the son of Gajapati Purusottama Deva, was a highly cultured king and a great patroniser of Sanskrit learning and Sanskrit poets and scholars of the time. The authorship of Sarasvativilasa, Pratapamartanda or Praudhapratapamartanda, Nirnayasamgraha and Kautukachintamani is attributed to him.

Out of the above the second work was compiled by Ramakrssna Bhattas of Kasi under the patronage of Gajapati Prataprudra Deva and he received the title of 'Panditasiromani' from Rajaguru Balabhadra Misra who examinrd the work 'Pratapamartanda'

The famous work (a) Sarasvativilasa in 5 ullasas was compiled by Laksmidhara Bhatta of Andhra country, who remained in the court of Prataprudra Deva for some years prior to 1520 A. D.

(b) The work Pratapamartanda or Praudhapratamartanda in 5 prakasas on Dharmasastra, the authorship of which has been attributed to Gajapati Prataparudra Deva, was compiled by Ramakrsna son of Madhava Bhatta.

c) Kautkachintamani, another work attributed in the name of Gajapati Prataparudra Deva, was written in 1520 A. D. It is divided in diptis which deal with Chitrabandha, composition of Kavy and black magic, respectively.

(d) The work Nirnaya Samgraha of the above author has not yet been noticed.

7. Rajaguru Godavar Misra, the son of Balabhadra Misra was the royal preceptor and the prime Minister of Gajapati Prataparudra Deva after his father some time after 1510 A.D. he was a great scholar, a poet of repute and proficient in Tantra as is known from the titles viz Godavari Vardhana, Kavipungava, Panditaraja, etc. used with him according to the citations of Jaya Chintamani and Achara Chintamani written by him. Information about works of Godavara is obtained from his Harihara Chaturang a, a treaties on the art of warfare. They are Tantra Chintamani, Advaitadarpana, Adhikaranadarpana, Nitichintamani, Achara Chintamani, Nitikalpalata, etc. But except the published book no manuscripts of other works have so far have been discovered.

8. Kavidindima Jivadeva Acharya (1475 A. D.) the son of Rajaguru Trilochana and Ratnavati was a commander-in-chief of the Gajapati Army, a great scholar and a great poet. He was also a royal preceptor of Gajapati Prataparudra Deva. He wrote Bhaktibhagavatamahakavya based on the 10th Skandha of Srimanbhagavata. The work has been divided into 32 cannot which contain more than 3,000 verses composed in different metres. He was the author of an allegorical drama called Bhaktivaibhavanataka in nine acts in which the excellence of devotion to Lord Krsna has been proved. It was in the Jagannatha temple at the time of Dolayatra festival. His other work called Utsahavati, based on the episode of Mahabharata, is a minor Rupaka staged in a pillared hall near Jagannatha temple in the spring seasons. He got the titles Mahamahopadhyaya, Kavidinidi, Kaviraja, Srimad Bhagavata, Paramacharya, etc. for his outstanding literary works.

It is known from his Bhaktivaibhava Nataka that he was honoured by Gajapati Prataparudra Deva with eight gold-handed chamaras, one gold-stafed umbrella and a resowding drawn in appreciation of his poetic attainments.

9. Kavichandraraya Divakara Misra (1464 A. D.), the son of Vaidyesvara and Mukta Devi, was one of the great Sanskrit poets of India. It is known from his Bharata that his family members were noted for their scholarship, poetic talent, mastery over six Vedangas and six Darsanas. From the Manimalanatika of Anadi Misra we come to know that the descendants of Divakara named Mukanda Misra, Satanjiva and Anadi Misra (1660 A. D.) were also famous for their contributions to Sanskrit literature. The poet Divakara has composed nine works as noted below:

(a) Bharatamrta-mahakavya is a work on Mahabharata, the manuscript of which is available now up to 93 verses of the 40th canto where it ends abruptly with the description of Salyavadha episode. Hence this is an incomplete work which must have been ended in 48 or 50 cantos. The available manuscript contains 3,338 verses composed in different metres. This is an important work which, like Naisadhiyacharita of Sriharsa, narrates the family history of the poet and mentions his works in the concluding stanzas of some of the cantos of Bharatamrta.

(b) Laksanadarsa-mahakavya is a notable work of the poet composed on following the footprints of the Bhatikavya of the poet Bhatti. The work is available up to 14th cantos only. It is based on the Pandava Charit episode of the Mahabharata, beginning from the exile of Pandavas.

(c) Abhinavagitagovinda attributed in the name of the patron Gajapati Purusottama Deva, is a real composition the poet Divakara according to the mention made in the last verse of canto XXVII of Bharatamrita. It is also known from the last stanza of the sixth canto of Bharatamrta that the poet Divakara adorned the court of Krsnadeva Raya, the king of Vijayanagar (1509-1529 A. D.) for some years. It is presumed that his Laksanadarsa was written while he was at Vijayanagar as no manuscript of this work has been discovered in Orissa. According to Orissan tradition the poet Divakara left the court of Vijayanagar when the fight between the two states Orissa and Vijayanagara became very intense.

The Abhinavagitagovinda in 10 cantos is an imitation of Gita-govinda. It contains 72 chatuspadi songs and 150 verses composed in different Ragas and metres respectively. This was published by the Directorate of Culture, Orissa in 1977. It is known from the Bharatmata Mahakavya that he has written some other works, namely Dhurtacharita Bhana, Devisataka, Rasamanjari, Haricharitachampu and Prabhatinaka, out of which Rasamanjari has been perhaps attributed to Krisnadeva Raya of Vijayanagar. But unfortunately the manuscripts of other works have not been discovered as yet.

10. Jagannatha Dasa (1491-1550 A. D.), the son of Bhagabandasa and Padmanavati of Kapoleswarapur Sasan, Puri was a famous scholar in Sanskrit as well as in Oriya literature. He is worshipped in every home for his Oriya Bhagabata which is treated as a religious scripture throughout Orissa. According to the scholars he has composed 8 works in Sanskrit and 12 works in Oriya language. Among the Sanskrit works, Niladrisataka, Upasana Sataka, Srikrsnabhakti Kalpalataphala and Nityagupta Chludamani are worth mentioning.

11. Murari Misra (1550 A.D.) the son of Kahnu Misra, was a famous Smrti writer of Orissa. His work Prayaschittamanohara on expiation rites of Dharmasastra was very popular.

12. Kavindra Markandeya Misra, the son of Mangaladeva was a contemporary of Gajapati Prataparudra Deva (1497-1535 A.D.) and Mukunda Deva (1559-1568 A.D.). His first work called Dasagrivavadha mahakavya in 20 cantos, based on Ramayana, was completed in 1500 A. D., and his second work, Prakrtasarvasva, was completed before 1565A.D. In the colophone of the Mahakavya he has introduced himself as Kacirajachakrvarti, but in the second work he has used the epithet Kavindra. According to the scholars both names were Brahmana by caste and flourished in the same period in Puri area. So they may be taken as identical.

13. Ganga Dasa (1525 AD.) was the son of Santasa Deva, Gopala Dasa, the writer of Parijataharana Nataka and his preceptor, Purusottama Bhalla was the author’ Chhandogovinda. The work Chhandomanjari of Ganga Dasa has been quoted at several places of the Vanmaya Viveka of Chintamani Misra (145-1575 AD) of Puri. This work is also quoted in Krsnakarnamrta commentary by Gopala Bhatta (1541-AD) and Ujjvalanilamani of Rupa Gosvami (1525-AD). From the concluding verse of Chhandomanjari it is known that Ganga Dasa was also the author of Achyutacharita, Kamsarisataka and Dinesasataka.

14. Raya Ramananda Pattanayak, son of Bhavananda Ray of Banntapur, Pur was a master of Vaisnava Philosophy. He propagated the dual Radha-Krsna worship prior to visit of Sri Chaitanya to Orissa in 1509 A.D. He was the Governor at Rajamahendry under the Gajapati Prataparuda Deva. He wrote a drama in 5 acts called Sri Jagannatha Vallabha Nataka. It is also known by name Ramananda Sangitanataka. It is written in the style of Gita-govinda and contains 21 songs and 68 verses composed in different Ragas and metres respectively. The name of his other work is Tikapanchaka, the manuscript of which is not noticed as yet.

15. Madhavi Dasi the cousin sister of Raya Ramananda also wrote a drama called Sri Purusottamadeva Nataka, which has not been noticed as yet.

16. Jayadeva Achrya, the son of Kavidindima Jivadeva Acharya, is the author of a minor drama (Uparupaka) named Piyusa Lahari, which was edited and published with a Sanskrit Commentary and English translation by Dr. K. K. Kar. It is based on the sportive dance of Radha-Krishna in the spring season (Rasalila). This drama was staged in the compound of the Jagannatha temple at Puri by an opera party organised by the poet himself. The poet concludes this work with a prayer to Lord Jagannath. His other work, Vaisnavalilamritam, is also based on the depiction of Rasalila. These two works were composed in between 1525-1535AD.

17. Bharatibhusana Vardhana Mohapatra, the son of Kavidindima Jivadeva Achary and younger brother of Jayadeva Acharya, was a great Scholar. According to the colophon he was the author of Durgotsavachandrika, a work on the autumnal worship of Goddess Durga which is observed for 16 days in Orissa. It is regarded as an authority like Sarada Saradarchana Paddhati of Godavara Misra throughout Orissa. But the authorship of this work has been attributed to King Ramachandra Deva-I (1568-1600 A. D.), the patron of the scholar.

18. Paramananda dasa Kavikarnapura, illustrious son of Sivananda Sena of Bengal who stayed at Puri under the patronage of Gajapati Prataparudra deva, wrote the famous drama Chaitanya Chandrodaya Nataka in 8 acts, which was staged at the time of the car-festival at the bidding of his patron.

19. Mahamahopadhyaya Govinda, or Kavisekhara Govinda, is well known for his Kavya Pradumnasambhava, written in 19 cantos. His other work, Gaurakrsnodayamahakavya in 18 cantos, depicts the life history of Sri Chaitanya and his activities in Orissa. It is a historical work written in Kavya form like other historical Sanskrit works namely Bhaktibhagavata, Kosalananda, Gangavamsanucharitachampur etc. of Orissa.

20. Chintamani Misra was the grandson of Harihara Misra Vajapeyi, a court poet of Govinda Vidyadhara (1542-1559Ad.) Mrtyunjaya Misra and Sri Devi who lived near Nilachala (Puri) were the parents of the poet Chintamani, who was a great poet of Orissa. His famous work on rhetorics and prosody is Vanmaya Viveka divided into 6 chapters and 3,200 verses was composed in Puri in Kali year 4675 or 1574 AD. It is known from the above work that the poet Chintamani was also the author of Sambararicharita, Trisirovadha Vyayoga, Kadambarisara, Sabhapromoda, Paksavali, Kamsavadha, Krtyapuspavali and Samiti Varnana. But unfortunately, except Vanmaya Viveka and Trisirovadha Vyayoga, no other works been noticed as yet.

21. Krsnadasa Vddajena Mohapatra is the author of Gitaprakasa, a treatise on music in 7 ullasas or chapters.

It is known from the Gitaprakasa that the poet Krisnadasa was a court poet of Gajapati Mukunda Deva (1559-1568 AD.) with whom Akbar, the great Mughal Emperor of Delhi (1557-1605 AD.), entered into an alliance.

22. Narasingha Misra Vajapeyi (1520-1580 AD.) the son of Murari Misra the grandson of Dharadhara Misra, the cansion brother of Godavar Mishra, was a great smrti-writer of Orissa. It is known from a work called Simhavajapeyi Vamsavali that Narasingha was a brilliant man. Through the help of the Goddess Siddhesvari he acquired mastery over the six philosophies. He defeated a famous logical of Ganda (Bengal) by argument in the royal court. He visited the court of Akbar some time between 1565-1568 AD with musician Mahapatra (Krsnadasa) and Ray Paramanda the ambassodor of Mukunda Deva.

It is known that Narasingha wrote 18 digests, each of which is called pradipa. Besides famous Nityachara pradipa, the first part of which was published by the Asiatic Society of Bengal in 1907 and the second part in 1928, he wrote other works, namely Samayavarsa-Bhakti-Prayaschitta-Sraddha-Pratistha-Sankarabhasya-Chayana-Vyavastha pradipa, etc.

The study of Nityacharapradipa throws some light on the social and religious history of Orissa in the 16th Century.

23. Visnu Sarma (1550-AD) a smrti writer composed his work called Smrti saroja kalika in 8 chap

24. Visvanatha Sena, the son of Tapana Mohapatra, the royal Doctor of Gajapati Mukunda Deva, was a reputed physician. His works namely, Ayuravedasarasamgraha, Visvanatha Chikitsa and Pathyapathya Vinischaya were very popular in Orissa.

25. Narayana Bhanja Deva (1525-AD), the King of Baud, composed his Gitakavya Rukminiparinaya in the style of Gita-govinda. The work is divided into 6 cantos and contains 12 songs and 40 verses.

The study of the other branches of Sanskrit literature like Jyotisa, Tantra, Darsana, etc. with writing of commentaries on older scriptures and literatures, were also taken up under the patronage of the Gajapati monarchs. This created a vast field for development of Sanskrit as well as Priya literature in the centuries to follow.

Panjika (The Vedic Calendar)

2009-11-03T14:09:00.000-08:00

The Panjika (almanac) is a book of dates, lunar days, auspicious and inauspicious times, positions of the sun, moon, planets and stars, horoscope, days of various festivals and religious occasions, etc. In ancient Sanskrit literature and in many regions of India, it is called Panchanga or five sections, because it contains information primarily on five aspects of life: days, lunar days, stars, conjunction of stars and action. In Bengal and Bangladesh it is well known as Panjika.

From the beginning of civilisation, people thought about the passage of time and tried to calculate it; hence, at different places people derived different ways of dividing time into year, month, day and dates. Gradually, the need arose to determine the time of different religious rites and social festivals and functions, and almanacs started serving this purpose also.

In different countries, different methods have been used for calculating time. As the rsis (hermit-scholars) of the Vedic Age used different seasons to celebrate different festivals, calculation of the seasons was very important to them. Accordingly, they divided the year into the summer and winter solstices. When the sun travelled towards the north, it was the summer solstice; when it travelled towards the south, it was the winter solstice. Ancient scholars divided the year into twelve parts: Tapah, Tapasya, Madhu, Madhav, Shukra, Shuchi, Nabhas, Nabhasya, Is, Urja, Sahas and Sahasya. Tapah to Suchi formed the summer solstice and Nabhas to Sahasya the winter solstice. This kind of calculation continued to be used till 1500 BC. The mention of Falguni (spring) full moon in Vedic literature suggests that lunar months were also calculated at that time. However, at that time, only the new moon, the full moon and the eighth lunar day were calculated.

With the passage of time, more scientific Panjika was evolved. Around 1,000 BC, this type of almanac started its year with the summer solstice and contained twelve months. In this, 30 lunar days and 27 stars were counted. A period of five years was counted as an age and the days would be recalculated at that time. Calculations were not always very accurate; on an average, one lunar day for every star was counted and sometimes a lunar day would be dropped from the calculation. For almost 1,500 years, this kind of almanac was used for the calculation of time and for religious and social occasions.

The almanac was greatly improved around the 4th and 5th centuries AD, when finer methods of calculations were adopted. Some of the people who played a leading role in this were Arya Bhatta, Varaha Mihir, and Brahma Gupta. They based the calculation of time on astrology and added the position of stars and planets, their movements, auspicious/inauspicious times, lunar days etc to the almanac. It became very convenient to gather astrological and astronomical information from the almanac.

Surya Siddhanta was regarded as a complete book of astrology. It is regarded as the father of modern almanacs and subsequently time calculations were done on its basis. Scholars used to copy almanacs on palm leaves and carry them to rural areas. Times for worship and other religious and social festivities were fixed on the basis of such information.

In Bangladeshi almanacs, on the left-hand side of every page the position of the moon in the zodiac is written in words; e.g., on the above page, is written chandro kanyayang (the moon is in Virgo). The positions of the different planets in the zodiac are shown through mathematical calculations. It may be noted that before the Surya Siddhanta, the daily positions of stars and planets were not written on the almanac.

The Bangla Panjika has an ancient history, with the earliest perhaps being the Navadvip Panjika, edited by the renowned Smriti scholar Raghunandan. Others who prepared Panjika include Ramrudra Vidyanidhi (18th century) and Biswambhar Jyotisharnabha. For some time the calculations ceased. However, during British rule, due to the efforts of a collector of Krishnanagar, Biswambhar again began the work of publishing the Panjika. At that time it used to be written down in the form of Puthi, but from 1869 it started being printed. From 1890, Bishudha Siddhanta Panjika began to be published. The last official revision of the Panjika was done in 1952 under the aegis of the Indian government. Under the chairmanship of the famous scientist Meghnad Saha, a Calendar Reform Committee was set up which reviewed the existing almanacs and recommended certain reforms. At its recommendation, the publication of the Panjika was brought under the purview of the government and from 1957, almanacs are being published by the Indian government. At present it is published in twelve languages and contains the year, month and day of the Bangla, Hijri, and Gregorian calendars.

One of the most important modifications of the Panjika to the Bangla calendar was that initiated by the Bangla Academy. According to the traditional method of calculation of time, it was not possible to predict the exact number of days in a month. Sometimes a month would have 29 days and sometimes 32 days. This appeared to be the main impediment to the acceptance of the Bangla calendar in all walks of life. To resolve this problem, a reform committee was set up in 1963 by the Bangla Academy with Muhammad Shahidullah at its head. According to its proposal, the first five months of the year were to be of 31 days each and the next seven months of 30 days. Since 1988, the government, in accordance with the Shahidullah Committee's method of calculation, started using in official papers Bangla dates alongside Gregorian dates. That same year, the Bangla Academy set up a committee of experts to make the Bangla calendar parallel to the Gregorian calendar and remove all errors. In 1995, a 'task force' was set up by the Cultural Ministry to develop the calendar and it gave the following recommendations:

In keeping with the Shahidullah Committee's recommendations, the months from Baishakh to Bhadra would be of 31 days each and those from Asvin to Chaitra of 30 days. During the Gregorian leap year, the Bangla year will also be considered a leap year and Falgun will consist of 31 days.

In the Panjika, the lunar days are of great significance and a full lunar month is of 29.5 days, i.e., 29 days, 12 hrs 43 minutes 12 seconds. The moon travels 360o in 29.5 days, so in one day it covers 360o 29.5 = 12.20o. This implies that on the second day, the moon will be 12.20o above the western horizon. While setting, the moon takes 4 minutes to cover 1o. Thus, to cover 12.20o it needs 12.20 4 = 48.80 minutes, or at the most 50.52 or 51 minutes. So, on the first day, the moon cannot be seen on the western sky for more than 51 minutes. Scholars believe that if the above scientific method of calculation is followed then the calculation of religious festivals depending on the moon would become easier.

Pathani Samanta: The Great Hindu Astrologer

2009-11-03T14:06:00.000-08:00

Pandit Samanta Chandra Sekhar Harichandan Mohapatra, locally known as "Pathani Samanta", was the illustrious author of Siddhanta Darpan - a systematic record of his life-long relentless work composed in beautiful metrical Sanskrit verses . Siddhanta Darpan is an astronomical treatise in elegant Sanskrit verses, developed and improved upon the Surya-Siddhanta and the Siddhanta- Siromani of the past. This magnum opus of Chandra Sekhar, the last and best book is worthy of its name as a real mirror of India's astronomical knowledge.

A Hindu orthodox by nature, Chandra Sekhar, with his traditional background alone studied the subject of astronomy, observed the movements of planets through naked eyes and was able to reach the approximate reality as founded by scientists with the aid of modern equipments. He was an outstanding mathematician of high order and engaged himself in the field of mathematical calculations known as Astronomy.

In Siddhanta Darpan, poetry and mathematics are in tune with each other, and this stands as a specimen of his genius. By sheer efforts and perseverance, this last and foremost orthodox Hindu siddhanta writer could rise above his environment. He left an indelible stamp of his genius on the history of Indian astronomy. His ability in the use of manayantra (measuring instrument), "Golyantra" (spherical instrument) and surya-ghadi (sundial to measure the time) proved him to be a good architect with engineering skill.

He had also interest in the preparation of fire works with knowledge to launch the same to a particular height. India is a nation of ancient culture and tradition. It reached the zenith in all spheres at one time when most of the so-called advanced nations of to-day were not discovered. Indian astronomy is nearly as old as the Vedas. As a science, it rose to its peak in the days of Aryabhatta in the 5th century A.D. Indian astronomy is a mere curiosity to the scholars of the West. They know very little about our traditional mathematical astronomy because it does not come under the mainstream of astronomy which originated in Babylonia and evolved through the Greeks and Europeans. Hence neither are the scholars of the West fair enough to assess the merit of our system, nor are we sincere to project ourselves sufficiently in order to establish our wit and wisdom before the so-called advanced world.

Chandra Sekhar recorded all of his findings in Siddhanta Darpan, a small book with about 2500 verses(24 chapters) in Sanskrit language entirely written on palm-leaves. Will Durrant was amazed to find this great Hindu scholar writing treatises on mathematics even in verses. This invaluable contribution of Chandra Sekher to the astronomical science, Siddhanta Darpan was written on April 12, 1869 and completed in all respect by November 12, 1892. Out of its 2,500 verses (slokas), 2,184 are his own. The composition and structure of the verses indicate his extraordinary genius and deep knowledge in Sanskrit. The verses are highly ornamental and orderly. They flow like a running stream unchecked, un-controlled, un-restricted and unbridled.

The contents of Siddhanta Darpan look amazing and unimaginable as the achievement of a single mind. Chandra Sekhar observed, verified and corrected all that was known to the Hindu astronomers for thousand of years. Even on many occasions he has gone beyond them to discover new phenomena and formulations, and came out with predictions that will remain valid for at least the next ten thousand years. In the field of observational astronomy, very often he has given new methods of calculation. At the end of his treatises he has furnished the calculations of an almanac, which has been named the Kautuka Panjee.

Among those who applied their brain and mind for the improvement as well as development of Panjika, the name of Chandra Sekhar figures in a very eminent position. A glorious personality by virtue of his high academic attainments, scholarly approach to the problems and moral effulgence, Chandra Sekhar no doubt shines best in the history of Panjika-Samskara". In 1876, the almanac computed according to Siddhanta Darpan found recognition in the temple of Sri Jagannath, and religious rites there are calculated/determined as per the latest Siddhanta of Chandra Sekhar.

Nearly one thousand years before the birth of Chandra Sekhar, no astronomer of repute had made any reformative study in the field of astronomical science. In order to know the exact longitude (grahasphuta of the planets) he took the help of Surya Siddhanta as his base book and innovated new methods in each chapter of Siddhanta Darpan.

As the moon changes its position more frequently than any other planet, it is very difficult to ascertain the exact longitude of moon. Hence, Chandra Sekhar innovated three principles, i.e. Tungatanra, Pakshika and Digamsa to know the exact longitude of moon. These three formulas expounded by him are very correct and they hold good in every respect. Likewise he had devised many new formulas for ascertaining the exact longitude of all the planets. His formulas regarding the solar and lunar eclipse are still invaluable objects in the astronomical treasury.

Completely unaware of the scientific and technological developments in the West, Chandra Sekhar had employed the traditional methods for astronomical measurements. He was well known in India and beyond for his accurate astronomical calculations, new theories about the planets and their movements, which were based on observations made by his naked eyes or with primitive instruments designed by himself. So he is rightly called the second Bhaskara in India. Chandra Sekhar seems to be the last link in the long order of great Hindu astronomers like Aryabhatta, Varahamihira, Brahma Gupta and Bhaskara, whose genius blazed from places spread all over India, scaling a time span of nearly 1,500 years, with available systematic record from 5th century A.D. to the turn of the last century. This continuous stream of genius appeared to have broken after Bhaskara for about seven hundred years, and one sees the burst of the last glow in Chandra Sekhar.

The long traditional culture of Jyotisha in Orissa for so many centuries was epitomized in Chandra Sekhar, who was honoured with the title of "Mahamahopadhyaya" by the British government in 1893 for his monumental work on Hindu astronomy, Siddhanta Darpan. He corrected the discrepancies in the astronomical calculations found in the annually prepared Almanac of Orissa.

Astronomy is a science in which observations go simultaneously with the calculations. Besides a thorough knowledge of motion of the stellar objects, it requires sufficient computational skill to tackle the vast multitude of big numbers. Chandra Sekhar was extraordinary in this respect, demonstrating a computational fit by providing tables with cores of data which pose a challenge even in this computerized age.

Chandra Sekhar had expressed his deep gratitude to all his predecessors in general and Bhaskaracharya in particular. He improved upon their calculations after careful observation of the planetary positions. Like any other original research work, his contributions are purely of intellectual interest in the field of mathematical astronomy.

The present Oriya Almanacs are being prepared as per the rules of Siddhanta Darpan and they have stood the test of time in successfully predicting the eventful occasions like eclipses. He had broken the icewhich blocked the path of progress in Indian astronomy for about a thousand years and mirrored the Siddhantas in modern perspectives, paving the way for future development. Our researchers today boast of degrees conferred on the basis of works which can hardly be compared with the originality and innovations that Chandra Sekhar has exhibited in a single chapter of his Siddhanta Darpan and its stupendous tables, called saranis. His contribution to the field of Hindu astronomy is little known and assessed due to the non-availability of a lucid commentary explaining the intricacies of astronomical calculations involved in understanding the Sanskrit verses composed in elegant pendantic style.

Pathani Samanta, alias Chandra Sekhar, was born in Khandapada, an ex-state of Orissa, in the un-divided Puri district of Orissa, on 11th January 1836 (the 8th lunar day of black fortnight in Pausa month of Saka era 1757). His final departure from this mortal world was on 11th June 1904. As per his own prediction, he came all the way to Sri Jagannath Temple at Puri to breathe his last.

Bhavishya Purana: The Prediction of Buddhism

2009-11-03T13:51:00.000-08:00

[From the 29th chapter of the Pratisarga Parva.]

Long ago in the country known as Citrartha, the inhabitants of the heavenly planets used to come to play during the time of autumn. One day a heavenly apsara know as Manjughosha came to that place where the sage Shuka was residing. Seeing this beautiful boy, she tried to attract him while singing and dancing, being overwhelmed by lusty desires. She praised him with a beautiful prayer holding her hands and bowing down. Somehow, she pleased the muni. Then the glorious Shuka, hearing this auspicious prayer asked her to request a benediction. Manjughosha humbly said: ”O lord, you are the protector of those who came to your shelter, therefore I’m at your shelter, please become my husband”. The sage accepted her and after some time they produced a son named ‘Muni’ who performed austerity very strictly upto 12 years. He married the daughter of Svarnadeva, the god of gold. They gave birth to a daughter named Kinnari. She was very young and beautiful. She performed austerity to please Lord Shiva, and as a benediction lord Shiva intrusted her to a sober sage Makaranda.

Then her father, Muni, asked lord Shiva to bless her, so that they will successfully make progress in this world.

Lord Shiva said: Upto 30 years you will enjoy your country in the middle of the earth, then it will be destroyed. After hearing this Muni went to his place with Makaranda and resided there. As soon as the 29th year started the battle took place among those kings who took birth as the incarnations of the associates of Krishna. Bauddha, the lord of nyuhas (the lessened people) attacked the beautiful city of Netrapala, thinking that this city is wonderfully decorated with various kinds of jewels. The powerful king Bauddha-simha who had seven-million soldiers, fought with those kings who had only three million soldiers. The fight went on terribly between the armies for seven days and nights. The great powerful kings, who killed all the inimical armies protected by Baudha-simha, were Yoga-simha, Bhoga-simha and Vijaya.

After that more Buddhists came from the countries known as Shyama and Japaka, and all of them were magicians. Again they had a large battle which lasted for one month. Then Netrasimha arrived with seven million soldiers protected by eight generals, for the destruction of the Buddhists. Being afraid, all the Buddhists left India completely and went to China to continue the war from there. The opposite army also continued following them. When they arrived on the bank of the Huha river, it was the month of Magh, the second half part of the month of January, the fight took place again. There were one million soldiers each from the countries of Syama and Japaka, and ten million soldiers from China assembled for a fight. On the other side, Krishnamsa, Deva, Netrapala, Mandalika, Dhanyapada, Lallasimha, Talana and Jana nayaka were the generals, each of them having one million soldiers. There was a terrible battle between the Buddhists and the Aryans. In that war seven million Buddhists, and two million Aryans were killed. Being afraid the Buddhists ran away from the battle and went to their home to produce a wooden army with the help of a machinery arrangement. They made ten-thousand elephants (made out of wood) along with warriors, one million horses, one thousand buffaloes, one thousand hogs, one thousand tigers, one thousand swans, and seven thousand camels. All these creatures had wooden warriors on their back. Thus with the wooden army which was 125,000 in number, they killed two million soldiers protected by Krishnamsas. Seeing this wonder Jayanta, the expert fighter shot fire arrows toward the wooden armies, so that they were immediately destroyed, being burnt to ashes. Only three million kshatriyas (warriors) were left, and they glorified the proficient warrior Jayanta again and again. Then the Buddhists from China, made a twenty thousand strong iron horse calvary and sent them to fight. The powerful warrior Yogasimha, riding on an elephant held the bow and arrows in his hands and shot to the neck of the iron warriors. Being afflicted by the arrows of Yogasimha five thousand soldiers were killed. Seeing this, Bauddhasimha made an iron tiger and sent it to Yogasimha. By the attack of that iron tiger the brave Yogasimha was finally killed, and then Bhogasimha riding on a horse, went to fight with the tiger. He killed the tiger by throwing a missile, and roared loudly. Then a lion was sent to him by Bauddhasimha and thus he (Bhogasimha) was killed by a lion. When the son of Swarna-vati (Jayanta) saw that his maternal uncles were already dead, he rode on a powerful horse and went to Bauddhasimha. He took illusory arrows and put the opposite army into delusion along with Bauddhasimha. He captured ten-thousand kings including Bauddhasimha, and returned to Krishnamsas having destroyed the mechanical armies.

Then all of them happily went to the city and forcibly “looted” the wealth from the palace, which was very opulent, and came back the fort of the king. Jayanta came and released Bauddhasimha. After being released he offered his daughter Padmaja to Jayanta and also offered 100,000,000 golden coins for the pleasure of his in law. After that all the Buddhists made their vows there itself saying “We will never go to Arya-desa to invade the country.” Then they offered their homage and left. They went to Netrapala with their three million remaining soldiers.

Bhavishya Purana: The Prediction of Islam

2009-11-03T13:49:00.000-08:00

[From the third part of the Pratisarga Parva.]

Suta Goswami said: After hearing the king’s prayers, Lord Shiva said: O king Bhojaraja, you should go to the place called Mahakakshvara, that land is called Vahika and now is being contaminated by the mlecchas. In that terrible country there no longer exists dharma. There was a mystic demon named Tripura, whom I have already burnt to ashes, he has come again by the order of Bali. He has no origin but he achieved a benediction from me. His name is Mahaoda and his deeds are like that of a ghost. Therefore, O king, you should not go to this land of the evil ghost. By my mercy your intelligence will be purified. Hearing this the king came back to his country and Mahamada came with them to the bank of the river Sindhu. He was expert in expanding illusion, so he said to the king very pleasingly: O great king, your god has become my servant. Just see, as he eats my remnants, so I will show you. The king became surprised when he saw this just before them. Then in anger Kalidasa rebuked Mahamada, “O rascal, you have created an illusion to bewilder the king, I will kill you, you are the lowest..."
[...]

That city is known as their site of pilgrimage, a place which was Madina or free from intoxication. Having a form of a ghost (Bhuta), the expert illusionist Mahamada appeared at night in front of king Bhojaraja and said: O king, your religion is of course known as the best religion among all. Still I am going to establish another religion by the order of the Lord. The symptoms of my followers will be that they first of all will cut their genitals, have no shikha, but having beard, be cruel, make noise loudly and eat everything. They should eat animals without performing any rituals. This is my opinion. They will perform purificatory act with the musala or a pestle as you purify your things with kusha. Therefore, they will be known as musalman. Thus the adharmic religion will be founded by me. After having heard all this the king came back to his palace and that ghost went back to his place.

On the island of Barbara, Tusha and many others also the followers of Isamsiha were also situated as they were managed by a king or demigods.

Bhavishya Purana: The History of the Bible

2009-11-03T13:46:00.000-08:00

The Bhavishya Purana is an ancient text authored by Sri Vyasa Muni, the compiler of the Vedic texts. It is listed among the eighteen major Puranas. Bhavishya means "future" and Purana means "history", so the text's name would translate literally as "The History of the Future". Though the text was written many thousands of years before the recorded events took place, by the power of his mystic vision, Sri Vyasa was able to accurately predict the happenings of the modern times. One of the text's poetic styles is to present the events as though they have already happened. This is a common practice in Sanskrit poetry, and does not indicate that the book was written in modern times. Modern scholars reject the contents of Bhavishya Purana mostly on the grounds that its information is too accurate. But we should ask ourselves: If there was an empowered saint, who knew past, present and future, and if he chose to write a book named "the History of the Future", shouldn't it contain accurate information about the modern times, as the title suggests? We cannot disqualify it simply because it speaks accurately of the British controlling India, Hittler fighting the world, and Max Mueller misrepresenting the Vedic teachings. "Veda" means knowledge, and the Vedic texts contain knowledge of everything - past, present and future.

Biblical and Modern History of Kali Yuga from Bhavishya Purana

[From the Pratisarga Parva, Chapters Four to Seven.]

Suta Goswami said: Once upon a time in Hastinapura, Pradyota the son of Kshemaka was leading an assembly and meanwhile the great sage Narada arrived there. King Pradyota happily honored him. Having him seated on the seat the sage told king Pradyota, "Your father was killed by the mlecchas, therefore he attained Yamaloka or the hellish planet. If you perform a ‘mleccha-yajna’, then by the effect of this sacrifice your father will attain the heavenly planets."

Hearing this king Pradyota immediately called the best of the learned brahmanas and started ‘mleccha-yajna’ in Kuruksetra. They built a yajna-kunda which was 16 yojanas in square (128 miles). They meditated on the demigods and offered oblations of mlecchas. There are haras, hunas, barvaras, gurundas, sakas, khasas, yavanas, pallavas, romajas and those who are situated in different dvipas and in kamaru, china and the middle of the ocean; all of them were called with the mantra and burnt to ashes. Then he (the king) gave dakshina (donation) to the brahmanas and performed abhiseka. As a result his father Kshemaka went to the heavenly planets. After that he became famous everywhere as a mleccha-hanta or destroyer of mlecchas. He ruled the earth for ten thousand years and went to heaven. He had a son named Vedavan who ruled for two thousand years.

At that time the Kali purusha prayed to Lord Narayana along with his wife. After sometime the Lord apperared to him and said, "This age will be a good time for you. I will fulfil your desire having various kinds of forms. There is a couple named Adama and his wife Havyavati. They are born from Vishnu-kardama and will increase the generations of mlecchas. Saying this, the Lord disappeared. Having great joy the Kali purusha went to Nilacha

Vyasa said: "Now you hear the future story narrated by Suta Goswami. This is the full story of of kali-yuga, hearing this you will become satisfied."

In the eastern side of Pradan city where there is a a big God-given forest, which is 16 square yojanas in size. The man named Adama was staying there under a Papa-Vriksha or a sinful tree and was eager to see his wife Havyavati. The Kali purusha quickly came there assuming the form of a serpent. He cheated them and they disobeyed Lord Vishnu. The husband ate the forbidden fruit of the sinful tree. They lived by eating air with the leaves called udumbara. After they had sons and all of them became mlecchas. Adama's duration of life was nine-hundred and thirty years. He offered oblations with fruits and went to heaven with his wife. His son was named Sveta-nama, and he lived nine-hundred and twelve years. Sveta-nama's son was Anuta, who rulled one-hundred years less than his father. His son Kinasa rulled as much as his grandfather. His son Malahalla ruled eight-hundred ninety five years. His son Virada rulled 160 years. His son Hamuka was devoted to Lord Vishnu, and offering oblations of fruits he achieved salvation. He ruled 365 years and went to heaven with the same body being engaged in mleccha-dharma.

having good behavior, wisdom, qualities like a brahmana and worship of God, these things are called mleccha-dharma. The great souls have declared that the dharma of the mleccha is devotion to God, worship of fire, nonviolence, austerity and control of the senses. The son of Hamuka was Matocchila. He ruled for 970 years. His son Lomaka ruled 777 years and went to heaven. His son Nyuha (Noah) ruled for 500 years. He had three sons named Sima, Sama and Bhava. Nyuha was a devotee of Lord Vishnu.

Once the Lord appeared in his dream and said: “My dear Nyuha, please listen, there will be devastation on the seventh day. Therefore, you have to be very quick that you make a big boat and ride in it. O chief of the devotees, you will be celebrated as a great king”.

Then he made a strong boat which was 300 feet long, 50 feet wide and 30 feet high. It was beautiful and all the living entities could take shelter in it. He then himself rode in it, engaged in meditating on Lord Vishnu.

Lord Indra called the devastating cloud named Sambartaka and poured heavy rain continuously for 40 days. The whole earth, Bharat-varsa, had merged in the water and four oceans came up together. Only Visala or Badarikasrama was not submerged. There were 80,000 great transcendentalists in Visala who joined with king Nyuha and his family. All of them were saved and everything else was destroyed.

At that time all the sages praised the eternal energy of Lord Vishnu. Being pleased by the prayers of the sages, the Vishnu-maya reduced the waters of devastation. After one year gradually the earth become visible. Under the hill there is a place named Sisina and the king was situated in that place with his other people. When the water completely dried up, king Nyuha came back to his place.

Suta Goswami continued: The mleccha, king Nyuha became attached to Lord Vishnu and as a result Lord Vishnu increased his generation. Then he created a language fit for the mlecchas, unfavorable to the Vedas. He named it as brahmi-bhasha, or brahmi language, full of bad words, for increasing the degradation of Kali-yuga. The Lord who is Himself the master of intelligence gave this language to Nyuha. Nyuha named his tree sons opposite. They were known as Sima, Hama, Yakuta and also Yakuta, Sapta putra, Jumara and Majuya. The name of their countries were known as Madi, Yunana, Stuvaloma, Tasa and Tirasa.

Hama who was the second son of his father, had four sons know as Kusa, Misra, Kuja and Kanaam. Kusa had six sons - Havila, Sarva, Toragama, Savatika, NimaruhaI and Mahavala. Their sons were known as Kamala, Sinara and Uraka. And their countries names are Akvada, Bavuna and Rasana.

After telling this story Suta Goswami influenced by Yoga-nidra entered mystic slumber. He woke up after two thousand years and thereupon he said: “Now I’m going to say about the generation of Sima. Because he was the first son of his father he became the king. This mleccha king ruled over the country for 500 years. His son Arkansoda ruled for 434 years. His son Sihla ruled for 460 years. His son Iratasya ruled the same length as his father. His son Phataja ruled for 240 years. His son Rau ruled for 237 years. His son Juja ruled the same length as his father. His son Nahura ruled for 160 years, and he destroyed his many inimical kings. His son Tahara ruled the same length as his father. He had three sons: Avirama, Nahura and Harana. Thus I have explained the generation of mlecchas with the indication of their names only. The mleccha language is considered the lowest language because it bears the curse of goddess Sarasvati. Thus I have summarily narrated the rise of the mlecchas in Kali-yuga.

Sanskrt is the language by which the whole Bharata-Varsa is being praised and glorified. The same language, after going to another country became the mleccha language and mlecchas took advantage of it.

After hearing all this, the sages situated in Badarikashrama, worshipped Lord Nara-Narayana and meditated upon them for 200 years. When they woke up from their meditation, they inquired from their teacher Suta Goswami:

“O disciple of Sri Vyasa, you are so fortunate and greatly intelligent, may you live long. Now please tell us who is the king at the present time?"

Suta Goswami said: “At the present time, the Kali-yuga has already passed its 3000 years. Now the king Sankha is ruling the earth and in the mleccha countries the king named Sakapat is ruling. Please hear about how they came up."

When the Kali-yuga passed 2000 years, the dynasty of mlecchas increased. They created many paths to grow and gradually the whole earth become full of mlecchas. The spiritual master and teacher of the mlecchas was named Musa. He was residing on the bank of the river Sarasvati, and he spread his doctrince throughout the whole world. As soon as Kali-yuga started, the devotion to the Lord and the language of the Vedas were destroyed. There are four kinds of mleccha languages: Vraja-bhasa, Maharastri, Yavani and Garundika. In this way there are four million kinds of other languages.

For example: paniyam (water) is called pani, bubhuksa-hunger is called bhukh. Paniyam-drinking is called papadi and bhojanam-eating si called kakkanam. Isti is called suddharava, istini is called masapavani, ahuti is called aju and dadati is called dadhati. The word pitri is called paitara and bhrata is bather and also pati. This is the yavani lanugage in which the asva is called aspa, Janu is jainu and sapta-sindhu is called sapta-hindu.

Now you hear about Gurundika language. Ravi-vara (the first day of the week) is called sunday, phalguna and chaitra months are called pharvari (February). Sasti is called sixty, these kinds of examples are there.

Crime is becoming prominent in the holy place of Sapta-puri. Gradually the people of Aryavata are becoming theives, hunters, bhillas and fools. The followers of mleccha-dharma in foreign countries are intelligent and having good qualities, whereas the people of Aryavarta are bereft of good qualities. Thus the ruling of mlecchas is also in Bharata (India) and its islands. Knowing all this, O great and intelligent sage, you should just perform the devotional service to Lord Hari.

The great sage Saunaka inquired: “Please tell us, what was the reason that the mlecchas did not arrive in Brahmavarta.

Suta Goswami said: That was by the influence of goddess Sarasvati that they could not enter that place. By the order of the demigods, when the Kali-yuga pursued his 1,000 years, a brahmana named Kasyapa come down to earth from the heavenly planets with his wife Aryavatil. They had ten spotless sons who are known by the names: Upadhayaya, Diksita, Pathaka, Sukla, Misra, Agnihotri, Dvi-vedi, Tri-vedi, Catur-vedi and Pandey. Among them was the learned one full of knowledge. He went to Kashmir and worshipped goddess Sarasvati with red flowers, red akshata (rice), incense, lamps, naivedya (food offerings) and puspanjali (flower offerings). To please her he praised her with some prayers, asking her for better knowledge of Sankrt to put mlecchas into illusion. Being pleased by his prayers she remainded situated in his mind and blessed him with knowledge. Then the sage went to the country known as Misra and put all the mlecchas into illusion by the greace of goddess Sarasvati.

Then he made 10,000 people as dvijas or twice born brahmanas; he made 2,000 people into vaishyas; and the rest of them as shudras. He came back with them and staying in Arya-desha (India) he engaged in the activites of the sages. They were known as Aryans and by the grace of goddess Sarasvati their generation gradually increased upto 4 million, both the men and women with their sons and grandsons. Their king, Kasyapa muni, ruled the earth for 120 years.

There were 8,000 sudras in the county known as Rajputra (Rajput) and their king was Arya-prithu. His son was Magadha. The sage made him a king and left.

Saunaka inquired: "O disciple of Vyasa, O Lomaharsana, please tell us who were the kings to rule the earth in Kali-yuga, after Magadha?"

Suta Goswami said: When king Magadha, the son of Kasyapa was ruling the earth, he remembered his father's administration and he separated the Arya-desha (India) into many states. The state which is on the eastern side of Pancala is known as Magadha, the state of Kalinga is on the east-south side, the state of Avanta is in the south, Amarta-desha is to the south-west, Sindhu-desha is on the western side, Kaikaya is to the north-west, Madra-desha is in the north, and Koninda-desha is to the north-east. These states are named according to his sons' names. After performing a sacrifice he gave the states to his sons. Lord Balabhadra became pleased with his sacrifice, and Sisunaga appeared from the sacrifice as his son. He ruled for 100 years and his son Kakavarma ruled for 90 years. His son Kshemadharma ruled for 80 years and his son ruled for 70 years. His son Vedamisra ruled for 60 years. His son Ajata-nipu ruled for 50 years. His son Darbhaka ruled for 40 years, his son Udayasva ruled for 30 years, his son Nanda-Vardhana ruled for 20 years, his son Nanda-suta, who was born from the womb of a sudri or a low class lady, also ruled for 20 years. His son Pranancala ruled for 10 years. His son Parananda also ruled 10 years. His son Samananda ruled for 20 years. His son Priyananta ruled for 20 years, his son Devananda also ruled for 20 years. his son Yajna-bhanga ruled for 10 years. His son Mauryananda ruled for 10 years. And his son Mahananda fuled for 10 years.

At this time Lord Hari was remembered by Kali. At that time the great and famous Gautama, the son of Kasyapa introduced the Buddhist religion, and attained Lord Hari in Pattana.

Gautama ruled over 10 years. From him Shakya muni was born, who ruled 20 years. His son Shuddhodana ruled 30 years. His son Shakyasimha became the king on Satadri after 2000 years and he ruled for 60 years, by which time all the people were Buddhists. This was the first position of Kali-yuga and the Vedic religion was destroyed.

If Lord Vishnu becomes a king then all the people would follow Him. The activities of the world are carried out by the prowess of Lord Vishnu. He is the master of maya or the illusory energy and whoever takes shelter of that Lord Hari, though he may be a sinful and abominable person, will become liberated.

Buddha-simha was born from Shakyasimha and he ruled for only 30 years. Buddha-simha’s son was Chandra-gupta, who married with a daughter of Suluva, the Yavana king of Pausasa. Thus he mixed the Buddhists and yavanas. He ruled for 60 years. From him Vindusara was born and ruled for the same number of years as his father. His son was Ashoka. At this time the best of the brahmanas, Kanyakubja, performed sacrifice on the top of a mountain named Arbuda. By the influence of Vedic mantras, four Kshatriyas appeared form the yajna. Among these four Pramara was samavedi, Chapahani was yajurvedi, Shukla was trivedi and Pariharaka was the Atharvavedi. They were accustomed to ride on elephants. They kept Ashoka under their control and annihilated all the Buddhists. It is said there were 4 million Buddhists and all of them were killed by uncommon weapons. After that Pramara became king in Avanta and he constructed a large city called Ambavati for his happiness. It was as big as 4 yojanas or about 32 miles.

Then Suta Goswami said: "My dear brahmanas I’m being influenced by yoga-nidra, therefore, please go to your respective ashramas and meditate on Lord Vishnu."

After the completion of 2,000 years, Suta Goswami said: When the kali-yuga had passed his 3,710 years, at that time the king was Pramara who rulled 6 years, from him Mahamada was born. He ruled 3 years and his son Devapi did the same. His son Devaduta also did the same. From him Gandharva-sena was born, who went to the forest after ruling for over 50 years and having given his kingdom to his son Shankha. Shankha ruled for over 30 years. Lord Indra sent a heavenly girl to Gandharva-sena named Viramati. A jewel like son was born form her womb. At the time of his birth, there were flowers raining from the sky, many auspicious instruments were played and the wind was blowing pleasingly. The name of the baby was Siva-drishti, who later left for the jungle with his disciples. After 20 years he became perfect in Karma-yoga. When kali-yuga copmleted 3,000 years, the terrible symptoms of kali had appeared. That baby took birth in the secret place of Kailasa, by the benediction of Lord Shiva, to destroy the shakas and to increase the Arya-dharma or the Vedic reigion. His father Gandharva-sena named his son as Vikramaditya and become happy. This child was very intelligent and very pleasing to his parents. When he was 5 years old, he left for the forest to perform austerities and he continued it upto 12 years. After 12 years he went to the holy city named Ambavati with all the opulence and accepted the transcendental throne sent by Lord Shiva. For his security goddess Parvati created a Vetala (a king of ghosts) and sent it to king Vikramaditya’s palace. Once the powerful king went to the temple of Lord Shiva named as Mahakaleshvara, who is the chief of the devas, and who has a bow named Pinaka. There he worshipped Lord Shiva. In that place he built a religious council hall with the pillars made of various metals and decorated with many kinds of jewels and covered with so many plants and creepers and flowers. In that hall he kept a celestial throne. He invited the foremost brahmanas who are well-versed in Vedic knowledge, worshipped them with proper hospitality and heard many religious histories from them. After that one demigod named Vitala come there having a form of a brahmana. Glorifying and blessing the king, he sat down on the seat and said: O master of this earthly planet, king Vikramaditya, if you are very eager to hear them I will describe the stories and histories to you.

Thus ends the seventh chapter of the Pratisarga Parva of the Bhavishya Purana.

Bhavishya Purana: The Prediction of Jesus Christ

2009-11-03T13:30:00.000-08:00

[ Bhavishya Purana: Pratisarga Parva, Chaturyuga Khanda Dvitiyadhyayah, 19th Chapter, Texts 17 to 32 ]

Texts 17 - 21

vikramaditya-pautrasca

pitr-rajyam grhitavan

jitva sakanduradharsams

cina-taittiridesajan

bahlikankamarupasca

romajankhurajanchhatan

tesam kosan-grhitva ca

danda-yogyanakarayat

sthapita tena maryada

mleccharyanam prthak-prthak

sindhusthanam iti jneyam

rastramaryasya cottamam

mlecchasthanam param sindhoh

krtam tena mahatmana

ekada tu sakadiso

himatungam samayayau

"Ruling over the Aryans was a king called Salivahana, the grandson of Vikramaditya, who occupied the throne of his father. He defeated the Shakas who were very difficult to subdue, the Cinas, the people from Tittiri and Bahikaus who could assume any form at will. He also defeated the people from Rome and the descendants of Khuru, who were deceitful and wicked. He punished them severely and took their wealth. Salivahana thus established the boundaries dividing the separate countries of the Mlecchas and the Aryans. In this way Sindusthan came to be known as the greatest country. That personality appointed the abode of the Mlecchas beyond the Sindhu River and to the west."

Text 22

ekadaa tu shakadhisho

himatungari samaayayau

hunadeshasya madhye vai

giristhan purusam shubhano

dadarsha balaram raajaa

Once upon a time the subduer of the Sakas went towards Himatunga and in the middle of the Huna country (Hunadesh - the area near Manasa Sarovara or Kailash mountain in Western Tibet), the powerful king saw an auspicious man who was living on a mountain. The man's complexion was golden and his clothes were white.

Text 23

ko bharam iti tam praaha

su hovacha mudanvitah

iishaa purtagm maam viddhi

kumaarigarbha sambhavam

"The king asked, 'Who are you sir?' 'You should know that I am Isha Putra, the Son of God'. he replied blissfully, and 'am born of a virgin.' "

Text 24

mleccha dharmasya vaktaram

satyavata paraayanam

iti srutva nrpa praaha

dharmah ko bhavato matah

'I am the expounder of the religion of the Mlecchas and I strictly adhere to the Absolute Truth.' Hearing this the king enquired, 'What are religious principles according to you opinion?'

                                  Texts 25 - 26

                         shruto vaaca mahaaraaja
                        praapte satyasya samkshaye
                         nirmaaryaade mlechadeshe
                           masiiho 'ham samagatah

                         iishaamasii ca dasyuunaa
                      praadurbhuutaa bhayankarii
                   taamaham mlecchataah praapya
                          masiihatva mupaagatah

"Hearing this questions of Salivahara, Isha putra said, 'O king, when the destruction of the truth occurred, I, Masiha the prophet, came to this country of degraded people where there are no rules and regulations. Finding that fearful irreligious condition of the barbarians spreading from Mleccha-Desha, I have taken to prophethood'."

                                   Texts 27 - 29

                        mlecchasa sthaapito dharmo
                          mayaa tacchrnu bhuupate
                         maanasam nirmalam krtva
                         malam dehe subhaasbham

                            naiganam apamasthaya
                         japeta nirmalam param
                             nyayena satyavacasaa
                            manasyai kena manavah

                           dhyayena pujayedisham
                         suurya-mandala-samsthitam
                         acaloyam prabhuh sakshat-
                             athaa suuryacalah sada

"Please hear Oh king which religious principles I have established among the mlecchas. The living entity is subject to good and bad contaminations. The mind should be purified by taking recourse of proper conduct and performance of japa. By chanting the holy names one attains the highest purity. Just as the immovable sun attracts, from all directions, the elements of all living beings, the Lord of the solar region, who is fixed and all-attractive, attracts the hearts of all living creatures. Thus by following rules, speaking truthful words, by mental harmony and by meditation, Oh descendant of Manu, one should worship that immovable Lord'."

Text 30

                        isha muurtirt-dradi praptaa
                            nityashuddha sivamkari
                                 ishamasihah iti ca
                          mama nama pratishthitam

"Having placed the eternally pure and auspicious form of the Supreme Lord in my heart, O protector of the earth planet, I preached these principles through the Mlecchas' own faith and thus my name became 'isha-masiha' (Jesus the Messiah)."

                                       Text 31

                            iti shrutra sa bhuupale
                        natraa tam mlecchapujaam
                       sthaapayaamaasa tam tutra
                        mlecchasthaane hi daarune

"After hearing these words and paying obeisances to that person who is worshipped by the wicked, the king humbly requested him to stay there in the dreadful land of Mlecchas."

Text 32

                      svaraajyam praaptavaan raajaa
                              hayamedhan ciikirat
                   raajyam kriitvaa sa shashthyabdam
                           svarga lokamu paayayau

"King Salivahara, after leaving his kingdom performed an asvamedha yajna and after ruling for sixty years, went to heaven. Now please hear what happened when the king went to svargaloka."
Thus ends the second chapter entitled, "the age of Salivahara" of the story of Kali Yuga of the Caturyuga Khanda also called pratisarga-parva of the wonderful Bhavishya Maha Purana.

Astonishing Evidence. Ancient India's Emperor Priyavarta Invaded Arizona!

2009-11-01T10:41:00.000-08:00

Baboquivari Mountain, near Sells, Arizona

More than any other tribes north of the Rio Grande, the O'Odham (usually pronounced as O'ttam or U'ttam) nation provides rock--solid evidence of the tight links between the Turks and the Hindus. It would not surprise me if someday Baboquivari mountain, which is 7.730 feet high, becomes as sacred for our American-born Hindus as it is for the O'odham, for their myths and legends have their nearly exact linguistic and functional counterparts in Central Asia and India. For instance, in my researches I became convinced that in pre--diluvial times a Shiva was really a seafaring member of a mercantile-oriented leadership priesthood caste of Central Asia. From that word we derived chief. These Shivas received their caste name from their totem, the jackal, which in Sanskrit is Ziva, Shiva (a euphemistic term). Since a jackal is a type of wild dog, it is also called Sivan or Svan. Another word meaning canine, jackal, is Van. For the Hindus, the Vanija or Baniya were itinerant traders. Even the Hindu myths imply that Shiva was a Bani, Beni, or Vanija. A good trader should be clever and highly resourceful. ThatÕs why they were called Sivan or Bani. In time, this word Van came to be the caste name of the Panis or Phoenicians.

The O'odham term for coyote or dog is Ban. Ban Cheoji = Coyote Men.

Edward Moore, in The Hindu Pantheon, wrote: 'Iswara is said... to have descended on earth after a great deluge, from which few escaped, to restore arts and sciences to the race of man that had become ignorant and brutal, and even without a regular language.'(p. 45.)

The O'odham myths mention that this happened with their god I'itoi and his coyote men. They say that I'itoi and his coyote men had already sailed around the world three times. On the fourth voyage, they were caught in the flood. The oceans of the world fairly boiled. I'itoi, Siva, or Sewa, and his coyote crew managed to sail back to the port of Punto Pe–asco, Sonora, the original name of which was and still is the Pinacate mountain range. In the OÕodham language, Pinacate means stinkbug. But in Sanskrit, Pinaka means ShivaÕs Trident. Khatti means Phoenician. Pinacate is indeed composed of three volcanic plugs called Schuk Toak or Schuk Daag (Santa Clara or Pinacate Peak). In Turkic dialects, Shikha or Sak = Fire Peak; Dag/Dak = Mountain. As you can easily see, even a child can recognize the Turkish and North Indian origins of those words. The three major volcanic cones in the Pinacate mountain range are now known as El Trebol (Clover), El Colorado, and El Elegante.

Pinacate Mt. Range

In ancient times what is now the Sea of Cortes went up to the base of El Trebol, El Colorado, and El Elegante. But the sea has since backed up miles away. The photo above indicates this. The original beach in the foreground is still visible.

When Shiva (I'itoi) and his Ban Cheojis dropped anchor there, they waded ashore and immediately marched inland to Baboquivari and Superstition mountains to help their people get back on their feet. They were also helped by Spider Woman (Durga), so named because she had six arms. Even today, several American Indian tribes worship Spider Woman (Durga) and Coyote Man (God Shiva).

Baboquivari Mountain is, indeed, the O'odham equal of Mt Meru or Mt. Kailasa in Western Tibet. India's Shiva and Kubera (god of gold and riches), According to Hindu mythology, and countless numbers of cobra protectors live within Kailasa. Many authorities lnsist that Shiva and Kubera are one and the same deity. However, in Arizona, Quivera (Khyber, Kheever, Kubera) is the mountain. I'itoi (A Phoenician name), Sewa, Sua, or Siva, live within it. Baboquivari is also working alive with rattlesnakes. Many adventurers tell me they are afraid to climb it.

The Baboquivera Mountain Range is filled with gold. Virtually all the gold panned in Southern Arizona leaks from the Baboquivari Range.

For the O'odhams, Baboquivari is The Navel of the World just as Meru and Kailasa are for the Hindus.

The O'odham representation of I'itoi or God Shiva. Notice the Swastika, a major symbol of Shiva.

In India, Babo or Babu means grandfather or wise one. Among the O'odhams, Babo means grandfather on the mother's side.

The Turkic and Sanskrit words found in the O'odham nation are too numerous for me to include in this article. I would almost need a book to do that. However, I will just name a few more:

The O'odhams call their way of life Himday. The Apaches are Inde. The other puebloan tribes are Inday.

Each O'odham district is divided into units called Chek-Shani. Chek = boundary; domain; border. In North Indian dialects Shek = A large division of a country. Shan = Nation.

Three O'odham clans are as follows:

Sobai-Puri = Skt., Sabha-Puri or Place of the Religious Assembly. Puri also means river. The Sobai-Puri were leaders of the O'odhams in religious and mundane matters. There was also a Sobai-Puri River. It is now the San Pedro. Because the Sobai-Puris were so intelligent and cooperative with the Spaniards, they were removed from Arizona and taken southward to help the Spaniards Christianize more wild and savage tribes.

Hya-Sed. In Sanskrit, Hya Siddhi-The Highly Accomplished Phoenicians.

Quiburi village. It's Indian equivalent would have been Khyber, Quivari, or Kubera.

Gita or Kita, O'odham sacred song.

The O'odham word for standing or sacred water is Bac/Vac. This word also derives from Sanskrit.

'Brahma was born out of the golden egg, produced in the boundless causal waters. His consort, VAC, (Saraswati) was manifested out of Him. From their union were born all the creatures of the world.

'The Indian concept of a river is that of a sustaining mother, a fertility goddess and both a physical and a spiritual cleanser. Respect for the river Goddesses was deeply rooted among the people of the Vedic age. Numerous hymns to Sarsvati (Bag Devi) are to be found in the Rgveda.' (Saraswati,by Chirralekha Singh; pp. 8-9.)
It is interesting to note that this concept of Vac, Wahka, Wahk, Bak, is found by the exact sound in nearly all the archeological ruins of both Americas.

The Smithsonian Bureau of Ethnology once published the titles of ancient O'odham leaders. Each was a name of God Shiva, including the word Teo.

Aerial View of the Sobai-Puri (San Padro River.)

Babo-Comari (Grandmother Mother Goddess) Creek. A tributary of the San Pedro River or the Quiburi region. Kumari is a Hindu mother goddess presiding over fertility, water, and other functions of Nature.

According to Hindu Mythology, the first king of the world was named Priyavarta. The world then consisted of thousands of small republics without a central power.

Priyavarta sent his armies to all the countries of the world, to unite all Indians and their colonial possessions as one nation. He appointed his sons as viceroys. One son, Sevana or Sewana, was sent to conquer and govern North America. O'odham legends mention this Sewana whom they call Siwana. When Shiva (I'itoi) wouldn't submit to Priyavarta, the former and Siwana met on the battle field. Ultimately, I'itoi (Sewa, Siwa, Se-a, etc) prevailed; Siwana was killed. Even more startling is the name of the O'odhams themselves: Uttama (a common way O'odham is pronounced), was a son of Priyavarta!

Since this Hindu legend is confirmed in O'odham mythology, we have sifted out some solid and valid history from the chaff, that no academic can deny.You may want to inquire whether Priyavarta's name ever appeared in the O'odham legends. They did not, for Priyavarta himself did not go to America. Only his sons and their armies went abroad to unite the colonies into one nation.

Sivan or Svan people are found all over North America, such as Suwanee, Swanee, Siboney, Siwana, Sewana.

There are dozens more of examples that I can provide. I go so far as to say that before English and Spanish nearly destroyed the original O'odham language, O'odham was a Sanskrit dialect.

The O'odham legend states that the ancient Hindus even came occasionally to America in a type of dirigible jet craft called Nah-Beg. Nah-Beg derives from the Sanskrit Nag-Bagh, meaning Snake God. Once, one of those Nah-Begs got out of control, swallowing several men alive in its intake manifold, in the lake in which it was moored. That lake, now bone dry, is located in the small village of Quitovac (Skt; Khatti-Vac [Lord of Sacred Waters]), Mexico, just across the border from Southern Arizona. The Shiva or I'itoi at that time, the leader and mining engineer living in Baboquivari, had to go to Quitovac and remove the energy source which was two small green stones containing a powerful and inexhaustible supply of energy. He also brought out alive the six men it swallowed. For many years, the O'odhams kept those stones in caves. The positive charged stone became lost over the years. However, one O'odham family kept the negative half of the energy generator in their home until the 20th century. Edward H. Davis, author of a small booklet published in 1920, wrote that he met an old O'odham man who had seen the negative half of the generator. (Indian Notes and Monographs; Vol. III, #4; The Papago Ceremony of Vikita, puiblished by the Museum of the Indian Heye Foundation, p. 62.) This powerful stone was small. The old Papago Indian told Davis that it was the size of a baseball. Later in the twentieth century, the O'odhams decided to hide it in a grotto in Organ Pipe Cactus Park. No one knows where it is anymore.

The O'odham story of the Nah-Beg seems to support the Hindus claim that they once had airships. The O'odhams celebrate the pacification of the Nah-beg each year in a special sacred song fest (Gita), called Vi-i-kita or Vi-i-Gita. This is a Sanskrit expression. Vi = attack; assail; punish; avenge; bring help. I = of; Gita=sacred song.

An O'odham man points toward the sacred site where the Nah-Beg got out of control

I have no way of knowing whether the O'odhams moved down to Southern Arizona and Northern Mexico from the Arctic Circle or came to America from East to West via the trade winds between the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn. However, they and the other tribes in the area told the Spaniards that they had come from the north.

Little by little, as their memories of their North Pole or Siberian paradise got hazier and hazier, the refugees from Eden, in whatever part of the world, came to identify all their spirituality, traditions and ideas about life with their new homes. That's why we all see ourselves as different from one another and even antagonistic. And when someone says we are really the descendants of Turks and Hindus, we yell indignantly that we're anything but!

Meru and Kailasa was said to be guarded by poisonous serpents. Archeologists tell me that Baboquivari has an abundance of rattlesnakes.

Mountains like Baboquivari exist all over the world. In Mexico, Mt. Orizaba (Citlalteptl), in Veracruz, is the Aztec and Mayan Meru or Kailasa. The Egyptian pyramids are called M'ru. Mt. Shasta, in Northern California is a Meru or Kailasa for the tribes in that region. It has even become holy for White Americans. Mt. Fuji in Japan is the Japanese Meru or Kailasa. These holy mountains are reminders of where all humans originated -- The North Pole!

India-Homeland of the Phoenicians

2009-11-01T10:27:00.000-08:00

"The word Pani occurs in not less than 36 riks of the Rig Veda It is used in one form or another in all the Mandalas except the fifth and the ninth, the forms being Panih, Panim, Paneen and Panayah. In the Sukta no. 108 alone of the tenth mandala the word is employed eight times. There are 11 riks in the 108th Sukta of the tenth mandala, and ill six of them Pani is the god. In some of the books the god is mentioned as Panayah and in other as Panayásura....The Phoenician ships sailed from the coasts of India and entered direct the Mediterranean Sea through the Strait of Suez, for in those remote days Suez was a strait and not an isthmus as it afterwards became through the silting up of the channel. The subsequent closure of the passage not only broke off the communication between the East and the West but also separated the Panis inhabiting the two quarters. Hence it was that long afterwards India appeared as a dream land to the ancient Greeks and other nations. The Panik War had taken place long before the strait of Suez was closed. That Suez was originally a strait will be evidenced by the facts here adduced. The present isthmus is sandy, which shows that there was a time when it formed part of the sea. Geology will bear testimony to this."

The Rig Veda
A History Showing how the Phoenicians had their earliest home in India, A Bengali Essay on the Subject by Rajeswar Gupta, 1902

Many truths lie buried in the dark depth of the past covered over by numerous strata of forgotten events. I propose to dig up one of them, one that would have to combat the history of the primitive ages as it is commonly accepted and also the cherished theories of the scholars of the east and the west, both old and new. What I fear is that the importance of the discovery may fail to attract the attention of the learned world through my own insignificance, utterly unknown to fame as I am. But I consider the task I have set upon myself to be of great moment, and nothing undaunted I intend to strike out the path, for diligence in the cause of truth is destined to bring its reward and recognition of the truth.

I begin by recapitulating first the results of my investigation to create, if possible, an interest in the subject at the outset. They are the following:

A great war broke out in the remote old days between the Indian Aryans and the Phoenicians in which the latter were defeated and compelled to leave wholly or partially the land of the Aryans.
Most of the Suktas of the Rig Veda either describe or refer to this and many other wars.
The Rig Veda, therefore, is not a poem only but a history. The current meanings of most of the Suktas will accordingly have to be altered and the Rig Veda SANHITA itself explained in a way different from the accepted one.
The Phoenicians were the first of the civilized nations of the world. The civilization of Assyria, Babylonia, Egypt, Greece and other ancient countries owed its origin to the union of the civilization of the Aryans with that of the Phoenicians.
The Phoenicians originally lived in Afghanistan or in some part of India, whence driven out they migrated gradually westwards. While still residing in the neighbourhood of India they colonized and traded with Arabia and the countries bordering on the Red Sea and the Mediterranean Sea.
The Phoenicians had colonies in many countries from each of which they were driven away by the natives after severe struggles. In this way they were expelled from India, Egypt, Greece, and Rome, or they mixed with the natives when they lost their supremacy in those countries.
The primitive civilization of the world was born long before the time known to us.
In ancient time the Red Sea and the Mediterranean Sea were connected together by a strait through which the Phoenician and Aryan trading ships entered the Mediterranean Sea and Indian goods were taken to Europe. As that passage gradually silted up the connection between India and Europe broke off.

These conclusions will lead on to many others which it is neither the place nor the time to dilate upon. They are sure to revolutionize the history of the world, chalk out a new path for linguistic researches, and recast the classification of the human races when the agitation caused by their novelty has calmed down and they have found acceptance with the learned world. A careful investigation, I am confident, will reveal the truth of these statements to honest enquirers, and the feeble track I lay out will before long turn to a high road in skilled hands of willing labourers in the cause.

The Panis

The word Pani occurs in not less than 36 riks of the Rig Veda It is used in one form or another in all the Mandalas except the fifth and the ninth, the forms being Panih, Panim, Paneen and Panayah. In the Sukta no. 108 alone of the tenth mandala the word is employed eight times. There are 11 riks in the 108th Sukta of the tenth mandala, and ill six of them Pani is the god. In some of the books the god is mentioned as Panayah and in other as Panayásura

It should be noted here that the names of the gods and the Rishis with which each Sukta begins were selected long after the collection of the VEDAS. These were determined in the Index known as the Anukramanee. The Anukramanee which has been followed in the Rik-Sanhita in adopting the names of the gods and the rishis, was composed by Katyayana Katyayana came after Yáska and it is therefore evident that the names were invented many centuries afterwards without having any historic truth in them. There is nothing in the Suktas themselves which can throw any light in elucidating these words. Moreover in some of the riks two or three names are mentioned of which only one is to be taken as the god. It is clear the commentator himself was at a loss to decide the point. It would not have been the case had the composer of the Sukta made the selection himself. Had he done so he would surely have mentioned only, one god instead of many. Take for example the 58th Sukta of the fourth mandala. The gods named therein are: -- Agni (Fire), Surya (the Sun), Ap (Water), Gabo (the Cows), or Ghrita (clarified butter). The same remarks apply to the use of the names of the rishis, vide the 2nd Sukta of the fifth mandala in which the names of the rishis are: -- KUMÁRA the son of ATRI, or KRISA, the son of JAR, or both. The inference therefore is that the names of the rishis, the gods arid the chandas heralding each Sukta, were inserted many years after the composition of the Sanhita itself, and must accordingly, be taken at their proper worth. Pani and Asura are two different words with different meanings. The Panis were not Asuras. The application of the word Panyásura as the name of the god in the 168th rik, quoted above, is to be taken to date from the Pauranic period and not the Vedic.

The Stealing of Cows

The stealing of cows by the Panis forms one of the most important factors of the Rik-Sanhita. The Suktas in which the Panis are mentioned, in which allusion is made to cows, or in which Indra is the god, are mostly related, directly or indirectly, to the stealing of cows. The commentator Sáyanáchárya admits this to be the case almost everywhere. Mr. Romesh Chunder Dutt, following the footsteps of Professor Max Muller, finds those of the Suktas or riks to contain the story of the stealing of cows in which the word Pani occurs, and considers the views of Sáyana as far fetched with regard to other Suktas and riks

In the commentary Sáyana makes reference to the Panis in explaining Sukta 33 of the first mandala (Vide page 79 of Mr. Dutt's edition), which runs . "Desiring to get back the cows, stolen by the Asuras known as the Panis, &c." Mr. Dutt rejects, this allusion to the Panis on the ground that they are not mentioned in the Sukta. The list I have prepared will. however, show that the word Pani does occur in rik 3 of the Sukta and it may be noticed that Mr. Dutt has made no attempt to prove Sáyana wrong in his explanation there In my opinion Sáyana's exposition appears to be the correct one when we study the Sukta as a whole. Sáyana refers again to the story of the stealing of cows when he begins his commentary on Mandala 11, Sukta 24, rik 6, and states how the homes of the Asuras of the Pani tribe were burned by the messengers of the Devas (gods) when they were discovered with the stolen cows by the hound Saramá. Sukta 108 of the tenth mandala will bear this out as nowhere else is the story related more fully and clearly. But Mr. Dutt, on the authority no doubt of European scholars, sets down this simple affair as merely an allegory without having any underlying historical basis.

Prof. Max Muller says . "It is a reproduction of the old story of the break of day. The bright cows the rays of the Sun or the rain clouds, for both go by the same name, have been stolen by the Powers of darkness, by the Night and her manifold progeny. Gods and men are anxious for their return. But where are they to be found? They are hidden in a dark or strong stable, or scattered along the ends of the sky, and the robbers will not restore them. At last, in the furthest distance the first signs of the Dawn appear, she peers about and runs with lightning quickness, it may be, like a hound after a scent, across the darkness of the sky. She is looking for, and following the right path, she has found it. She has heard the lowing of the cows, and she returns to her starting place with more intense splendour. After her return Indra arises, the God of light ready to do battle in good earnest against the gloomy Powers, to break open the strong stable in which the bright cows were kept, and to bring light and strength and life back to his pious worshippers." Science of Language, Vol II PP. S 13-514.

The following points. however, require elucidation before we can accept the theory of the Western scholars:

The Dawn never returns after it has once disappeared, before the same Sun-rise.
The allegory as described does not correspond with the story as related in the original.
If by the God of light the Sun is meant, what becomes of Indra?

Saramá

To ascertain the meaning of a Vedic word it is necessary to have some acquaintance with the expounders of the Vedas. If I hold that at to know the Vedas correctly we need not follow the Western scholars, it must not be inferred that I disregard them. I am not however prepared to honour them before the scholars of my own country. To put without rhyme or reason a different construction on the exposition of the Vedic scholars of India, is to ignore them and as it were to persecute the M.

The writers of the Niruktas were the first expounders of the Rig Veda. The works of three of them, out of four whose names are available, are not forthcoming. Yáska, whose writings have been preserved, was the fourth writer of the series. According to Mr. R. C. Dutt Yáska flourished in the 9th century B.C., and if it be admitted that the Rig Veda was composed two thousand years before the birth of Christ, Yáska must have had to elucidate the Vedic words tracing their evolution through the history of the country for eleven hundred years. But it is impossible that he could have done so, and I do dot think I need adduce any reasons for my assertion. He had to explain the unintelligible riks with the help of tradition and the dictionaries extant. Achárya Sáyana also followed the same course for the purpose, only that his profound wisdom and valuable researches shed a brighter lustre on it. Prof. H. H. Wilson thus speaks of Sáyana: "He undoubtedly had a knowledge of his text far beyond the pretension of any European scholar, and must have been in possession either through his own learning or that of his assistants, of all the interpretations which had been perpetuated by traditional teaching C. 1 earliest time.

The Western scholars take the Rig Veda to be a collection of hymns in praise of nature. This theory they have consistently followed without looking to history for the correct exposition of the Vedas. In fact they have gone the other way of deducing history from the Vedas. But I would follow the scholars of my own country who did not try to create a history out of the Vedas. I would make history my guide in opening up the secrets of those sacred books. I must however at the outset say that my acknowledgments are due to the scholars who have already taken the lead in unfolding the mysteries of the Vedas, as also to Mr. R, C. Dutt in particular.

The dispute is in regard to the correct meaning of the three words, Pani, saramá and go. For the meaning of the first Prof. Max Muller depends on the meaning of the second. According to Prof. Kuhan, Saramá means storm. He says that Saramá is only a different form of the Teutonic Storm and the Greek herme. The word Saramá is derived from the root Sar with the suffix amá and Sar means to go. Saramá therefore means a runner or one who goes quickly. But storm or wind does not appear to be the correct meaning of the word Saramá as used in the Vedas. There Saramá is a messenger of Indra; she seeks out the lost cows and goes about to distant places. For her services she is rewarded with food for her son, (I. 62. 3) and she gets a large quantity of milk from Indra and others (1. 72. 8). So Saramá cannot mean the storm or the wind.

Prof. Max Muller would think that saramá and the early dawn were one and the same thing. He says: "There can be little doubt that she (Saramá) was meant for the early dawn, and not for the storm. In the ancient hymns of the Rig Veda she is never spoken of as a dog, nor can we find there the slightest allusion to her canine "nature. This is evidently a later thought." Science of Language, Vol. II. R 5 51. I agree with the learned Professor in holding that

Saramá was not a dog. The Panis concealed the cows: Saramá discovered them and informed Indra. It would appear that in those days whoever found out a lost thing after a careful search -- an informer -- was called Saramá and naturally the word came to mean a dog long after the Vedic days. To reconcile the meaning of the word in the Vedas, Sáyana ascribes to her supernatural powers, or how could a dog speak? Nothing, was impossible in the land of the gods.

In the Rig Veda Saramá has been given a number of attributes. She is the messenger of Indra (X. 108 2); she is beautiful, fortunate (X. 108 5); she is fair-footed or swift-footed. Surely these cannot be attributed to a dog.

Prof. Max Muller says. "It is Ushás the Dawn, who wakes first (I 123. 1); who comes first to the morning prayer (1. 123. 2). The-, sun follows behind as a man follows a woman (Rv I. 115. 2). Of whom is it said, as of Saramá, that she brings to light the precious things hidden in darkness? It is Ushás, the Dawn, who reveals the bright treasures that were covered by the gloom (1. 123. 6). She crosses the water unhurt (VI. 64. 4); she lays open the ends of heaven (1. 92 11); those very ends where, as the Panis said, the cows were to be found. She is said to break the strongholds and bring back the cows (VII. 75. 7; 79. 4). It is she who, like Saramá, distributes wealth among, the sons of men (1. 92. 3; 123. 3). She possesses the cows (1. 123. 12. &C.) she is even called the mother of the cows (IV. 52. 2). The Angiras, we read, asked her for the cows (VI. 65. 5), and the doors of the dark stable are said to be opened by her (IV. 5 1 2). In one place her splendour is said to be spreading as if she were driving forth cattle (1. 92. 12); in another the splendours of the Dawn are themselves called a drove of cows (IV. 51. 8; 52. 5). Again, as it was said of Saramá that she follows the right path, the path which all heavenly powers are ordained to follow, so it is particularly said of the Dawn that she walks in the right way (1. 12 4. 3; 1 13. 12). Nay even the Penis, to whom Saramá was sent to claim the cows, arc mentioned together with Ushás, the Dawn. She is asked to wake those who worship the gods, but not to wake the Panis ( ( 1 124. 10). In another passage (IV 51. 3) it is said that the Panis ought to sleep in the midst of darkness while the Dawn rises to bring treasures for man.

It is more than probable, therefore, that Saramá was but one of the many names of the Dawn "

From these the Professor concludes that Saramá and Ushá or the dawn are the same thing. But I am unable to subscribe to this view. If Saramá could not be the storm, it could neither be the dog. It is absurd that such epithets as fair-footed and beautiful should qualify a dog, or that such expressions as returning to Indra and crossing a stream should be predicated of a storm.

The learned Professor was so charmed with the Greek stories of the light, the darkness 1 a and the dawn, that he was led to trace the allegory in the Vedas even. And it was very natural. The son of a famous German poet he was taught from his infancy to look upon the world with the eyes of a poet as full of poetry. He loved poetry and saw it everywhere in nature all around. To him the Rig Veda therefore was nothing but a poem, a book of hymns, and hence the allegorical expositions. Thus what was meant to be a history was taken to be a poem. Let me however point out that the Rig Veda is not a poem but a history, the first and the most ancient history of the world. It is impossible for a nation to have a poem without having a history of its own. Prof. Max Muller would even trace the origin of the Trojan war in the epic of the immortal HOMER to the stories of the Panis and Sarainá in the Rig Veda. To discover the original meaning of old and obsolete words it is necessary to know (I) the condition or history of the then society, (2) the intellectual progress attained by the men of the time, and (3) the changes in the meaning which the words themselves have undergone from time to time. I would only point out here that at least the first two requisites were not fulfilled by the Western scholars in ascertaining the meaning of the Vedic words. In fact the allegorical explanations they have given to various words and passages of the Rig Veda would point to an intellectual state of our forefathers which it was not possible for them to have attained in those early days. Development of the Imagination must follow, and not precede the maturity of the Intellect.

The misconceptions of the Western scholars are more-over largely due to their acceptance of the current meanings ideas and of the Vedic words in explaining long-forgotten usages. It should be remembered that the modern meanings of words have reference to the modern state of the human society. An attempt to explain the Vedas, which are four or five thousand years old, in the light of present day signification of words is undoubtedly vain and useless. In two or three hundred years even many words and their meanings as well become obsolete and antiquated. What wonder, therefore, that a large number of words of an ancient work like the Vedas should be entirely forgotten after the lapse of so many centuries? The use of many words in their original Vedic sense has been forbidden even after the days of Sáyana. The dictionaries which are the repositories of words and their meanings were themselves compiled long after the Vedas when a great many of the words had lost their etymological signification; and the grammar has only puzzled the scholars in arriving at the correct import of the Vedic words, as it deals with but a few of the various meanings which particular words conveyed. Hence it is that the principal Vedic words have been made to mean what was not contemplated by the sages of old who used them first. The words Sarainá, Pani, Go, Indra, Soma, the twins Asvi, etc., are of this class and difficult to unravel.

The Meaning of the Word Pani

I wish Prof. Max Muller had taken the same pains to ascertain the meaning of the word Pani as he had done for Saramá. To get at the correct meaning of the latter it is desirable that we should first know the correct meaning of the former. And so I begin with the word Pani.

I have already said that the word Pani is mentioned no less than 36 times in the Rig Veda. The word Pani forms as it were the backbone of the Rig Veda: it is the key that unfolds the meaning of the sacred book, Not only do the stories of Saramá and Pani, but also good many riks depend for their proper interpretation upon the correct meaning of the word Pani itself. The rules of grammar relating to numbers and inflections have not been observed in the Rig Veda and it is not unusual for a word in the singular number to denote plural ideas or objects.

The expression Revatá Paniná (4. 25. 7) shows that the Panis were rich.
The expression Paner maneeshán (3. 58. 2) shows that the Panis were wise.
Abasam Panim (6. 61. I) would show that the Panis were given to introspection.
The rik 7-6-3 tells us that the Panis did not perform any Yajnas or sacrifices; were garrulous, arrogant or haughty; had no respect for Yajanas and were Dasyus i.e., idlers or robbers. According to Sáyama they were usurers also.
In 1. 33. 3 the word Pani is used for traders. Mr. Dutt, evidently following the European scholars, adopts the meaning of the term as traders in this rik. It is therefore clear that the Panis were a trading people and sold things for their value.
The rik 6. 5 1 14 represents the Panis as gluttons. For their voracious eating they were regarded as monsters. The word is also explained to mean illiterate traders.

All these would go to show that the word Pani could never mean darkness. It must mean men or some creatures akin to men. They were indeed a nation of traders without sacrifices, selfish, illiterate and usurious.

A nation of traders of those ancient days recalls the Phoenicians of old, for they were the only trading people then. In those days the Phoenicians were known as the Panis. The Aryans spoke of them as the Panih and the Romans as the Punic.

The question now is, how did the Panis come to be the neighbours of the Aryans?

Prof. Keightly says that the Phoenicians called themselves Kedmus In the Semitic language Kedmum means the East. it is probable that the Phoenicians came from the East and so gloried in the name of Kedmus, i.e., an Eastern people. This again would show that civilization had travelled from the east and had not its origin in Egypt.

Herodotus, known in the West as the father of History, was born in Asia Minor in 434 B.C. He travelled over many countries and recorded the experiences of his travels. He says: "The more learned of the Persians assert the Phoenicians to have been the original exciters of contention. This nation migrated from the borders of the Red Sea to the place of their present settlement, and soon distinguished themselves by their long and enterprising voyages. They exported to Argos, amongst other places, the produce of Egypt and Asia." Chapter I. Book 1.

Prof. Larchar of Ireland says: "Some authors make the Phoenicians to have originated from the Persian Gulf." And in Pockock's 'India in Greece' we have (vide page 218), "There to the north dwelt the singularly ingenious and enterprising people of Phoenicia Their first home was Afghanistan

I could multiply such quotations in support of my views. These lead me to conclude that from Afghanistan the Phoenicians went to the coast of the Persian Gulf, from the Persian Gulf to the borders of the Red Sea in Arabia and thence to Phoenicia, their last colony and home. I should like to observe here that they had, before their occupation of Phoenicia, colonized Egypt and the islands of the Mediterranean Sea. They had colonies in Greece and in the adjacent countries even. In fact with the Phoenicians or Panis the light of civilization travelled from the cast to the west.

The Phoenician held their own civilization to be the most ancient and declared it to be thirty thousand years old. There is however no doubt that they were one of the first civilized nations of the world, if not the first, and that Phoenicia was not their first home. Instead of tracing them to their first settlements on the coasts of Arabia or Persia or in Afghanistan the historians of Europe have located them at once in Phoenicia, and hence the mistake that points to the origin of all civilization in Egypt. I would not discuss here the question whether Afghanistan was the first home of the Phoenicians or not. But I would affirm that the Panis or Panih of the Rig Veda were the same people as the ancient Phoenicians of Afghanistan

The Meaning of the Word Go

After ascertaining the meaning of the word Pani I take up next the Vedic word Go Saramá will be the last word of my investigation.

The word go occurs in almost all the riks in which the word Pani is used, and also in those Sutras in which Indra is the god or Ushá is the goddess. Prof. Max Muller has generally explained go as the rays of the Sun. I have not yet been able to know how other Western scholars explain the word. Mr. Dutt has followed Prof. Max Muller and has presented his view as shared by, a number of Vedic scholars. Sáyana interprets the word as water in certain passages, and as the re rays of the Sun in others, vide 4. 5 1. 3 and 4. 52. 2. There are, again, places where he gives no synonym for the word at all

Sáyana flourished in the fourteenth century A.D., when the Sanscrit vocabulary had been almost perfected. The word go then had for its synonyms Heaven, ray, thunder, the moon, the sun, animal, the cow-sacrifice, cow, water, organ or sense, word, etc. And yet with all these before him Sáyana did not try to explain away the word go when he came across it in the incidents relating to the theft of the go by the Panis. A reference to the various passages will show that in such cases he has taken the word go to mean the cow or cows and not the rays of the sun.

Let us see how the Rig Veda can itself help us in ascertaining the meaning of the word go.

It is said in 4.58.4 that the Panis kept concealed in the go three kinds of butter and the gods came to know of it. It is absurd to suppose that go which produced milk, curd and butter were rays of the sun and not cows. There cannot be the least doubt that go meant cows.

'The conversation between the Panis and Saramá in the 108th Sukta of the tenth mandala, as translated into Bengali by Mr. Dutt, convincingly shows that the word go could not mean any thing but cows, that it meant some animal and not rays of the sun.

I quote below the passage as rendered in English by Professor Max Muller

The Panis said: 'With what intention (did Saramá reach this place! for the way is far, and leads tortuously away. What was your wish with us? How was the night? How did you cross the waters of the Rasá?'
Saramá said: 'I come, sent as the messenger of Indra, desiring, O Panis, your great treasures; this preserved me from the fear of crossing and thus I crossed the waters of the Rasá.'
The Panis: 'What kind of man is I Indra O Saramá? What is his look, he as whose messenger thou camest from afar? Let him come hither, and we will make friends with him, and then he may be the cowherd of our cows.'
Saramá: 'I do not know that he is to be subdued, for it is he himself that subdues, he as whose messenger I came hither from afar. Deep streams do not overwhelm him; you, Panis, will lie prostrate, killed by Indra.'
The Panis: 'These are the cows, O Saramá which thou desirest, flying about the ends of the sky, O darling. Who would give them up to thee without fighting? For our weapons too are sharp.'
Saramá: 'Though your words, O Panis, be unconquerable, though your wretched bodies be arrowproof, though the way to you be hard to go. Brihaspati will not bless you for either.'
The Panis: 'That store, O Saramá, is fastened to the rock furnished with cows, horses, and treasures. Panis watch it who are good watchers; thou art come in vain to this bright place.'
Saramá: 'Let only the Rishis come here fired with Soma, Ayasya (Indra) and the ninefold Angiras; they will divide this stable of cows; then the Panis will vomit out this speech
The Panis: 'Art thou, 0 Saramá, come hither driven by the violence of the Gods? Let us make thee our sister, do not go away again; we will give thee part of the cows, 0 darling.'
Saramá: 'I know nothing of brotherhood or sisterhood; Indra knows it and the awful Angiras. They seemed to me anxious for their cows when I came therefore get away from here, 0 Panis, far away.'
'Go far away, Panis, far away; let the cows come out straight the cows which Brihaspati found hid away, Soma, the stones, and the wise Rishis.'

The Meaning of the Word Saramá

If Pani means the Phoenician merchant and go the cow, it can easily be understood that Saramá cannot mean either the (she) Dog of the gods or the Dawn. Professors Max Muller, Monier Williams and others have taken the Vedic story of the theft of cows as an allegorical representation of the conflict between light and darkness or day and night Hence they have explained a good many riks as hymns in praise of Nature I am sure these scholars have not at every step followed the proper meaning of the Vedic words but have adopted what they themselves thought to be their plausible meaning.

Saramá introduces herself to the Panis as the messenger of Indra. I can safely affirm without stopping to enquire who Indra was, that Saramá is neither a dog, nor the Dawn, but she is human and she is a woman. It may be of interest to note that the Panis do not ask her who she is, but who Indra is, by whom she is sent to them. It is evident she is already known to them. The very conversation between them shows that they are not strangers. This leads me-to infer that by Saramá is meant those Pani-women who with their children had been imprisoned by the Angiras.

The Angiras and their party had compelled these Saramás or messengers to capitulate for them with the Panis. They could not leave their children without making due provisions for them (1-62-3) as they were afraid of being detained by the Panis. Or it may be that the Angiras forced the mothers to go out to the Panis as their messengers and kept the children as hostages for the successful performance of their duty.

It would seem that for some reason or other the study of the Rig Veda was for many centuries forbidden, and so the present confusion about the meaning of the Vedic words. The age of the Puranas evidently had its origin in an attempt to discover the original meaning of those words. In their ignorance of the proper signification of the epithets the commentators thought out gods and goddesses hoping to give a rational explanation of the sacred books. Thus they were led to ascribe to inanimate objects desires and functions which they could never exercise or possess, forgetting that the words in question in the Vedas related to men and their actions. And thus did the age of the Puranas or Mythology come into existence clothing the Vedas with absurdities. Still however in the hands of the Indian scholars like Sáyana and others the Vedas were not wholly divested of their historical garb. But the Western scholars, on the other hand, led by Professor Max Muller, have gone a step further -- they have declared the Vedas to be nothing more than hymns in praise of Nature. Hence the difference in the interpretations of the Rig Veda by the savants of the East and the West. Investing the Vedas with mythical ideas Sáyana has interpreted Saramá to be the Dog-messenger of the gods, while to Max Muller and his followers she is only the storm or the Dawn to suit their theory that the Vedas are but a collection of hymns. In the latter is lost the vestige of historic worth of the Vedas that is still traceable in the former. I am led to discard both these views . I accept the Vedas as a history recording the actions of men-that this -- view is correct will be amply demonstrated in this treatise .

Sukta 108, quoted above,' if properly interpreted, will show that Saramá could have been nothing but a woman. In fact the expressions used therein cannot be correctly and rationally explained except in relation to man. For this and various other reasons I have interpreted Saramá as an imprisoned (or prisoner) Pani (Phoenicians) woman.

Another point worthy of notice in this connection is that all primitive words originally meant objects or things. Abstract or metaphorical meanings, as they implied intellectual development, came in long afterwards. The Rig Veda was composed in the primitive age of words and it was almost impossible for them to have been used metaphorically at that stage. The metaphorical and allegorical interpretation of the Vedas by the Western scholars cannot therefore be considered sound and reasonable.

The Cause of the War

I may now say with Sáyana that the Panis stole the cows of the Angirás or of their friends. The Angirás defeated the Panis with the help of Indra and other powerful allies and regained their cows. I must however admit here that I am not yet certain whether the Panis stole the cows of the Angiras or the Angiras attempted to take by force the cows belonging to the Panis, for the Angiras and their partisans would not unoften seize the cows of others: vide Suktas 6-45-24 and 6-45-32. This shows that the Angiras would ask for cows from Kavitsa and Bribu. Some of the owners would part with their cows without any objection to continue their friendship with the Angiras, but some would object and a fearful strife would ensue. The Angiras would ask the Panis to give them their cows, but they would not do so willingly. So the Angiras sometimes took their cows by force -- vide 1-93-4. Many of the Aryan families were afraid of the Angiras and they would not oppose them. But the Panis were 'rich and powerful and possessed many hill forts and fortified towns: 6-45-9. So they were not afraid to defy Angiras.

In riks 4-93-1 and 1-39-6 the cow is mentioned as in article of food. It is therefore evident that the Angiras were in the habit of taking beef and other meat. I have shown before elsewhere in my Bengali journal the Anjali, (Part 12, Vol. 1) that the Indian Aryans used to take animal food and intoxicating drinks, for which they fought amongst themselves I am not yet sure if the Panis were Aryans, but there is no doubt that they had a terrific quarrel with the flesh eating Angiras and their party for their cows and other cattle

It is now necessary to determine who the Angiras were. They were the principal branch of the Aryans. Rik 2-24-6 describes them as learned. Brahmanspati or Brihaspati was their leader or headman. In rik, 5-101-1 Sáyana interprets Brahmané in relation to the caste or the family. of the Brahmans or the Angiras. This would show that the Brahmans of the later days were no other than the Argiras of the Vedic period. The word Brahmavih occurs in rik 9-33-1 . Sáyana explains it as Mantraíh that is by incantations or the sacred words. According to Pandit Ramanath Sarasvati the word means by the worshippers. Mr. Dutt however following Professor Wilson (and perhaps accepting the reading Nibrahmavih) makes it mean by those who were tenable to accept the mantras, but says in the note that the meaning of the passage is not clear. I think the meaning would be clear enough if the word were taken to denote the Angiras. It should be remembered that according to Sáyana the Brahmans are the descendants of the Angiras.

The Angiras were flesh-eaters whilst the Panis were cowherds. That the flesh-eaters would often oppress the herdsmen can easily be understood. The Panis prepared three kinds of articles of food from the milk of their cows. Sáyana has described them as Ksheer or condensed milk, Dadhi or curd and Chrita or Clarified butter. I think the Persian Panir (cheese) is one of these three preparations. Most probably it is a modification of the first condensed milk. The article was first prepared by the Panis and so the name Panir The Panis not only made these preparations but also traded in them, and hence their love and care of cows and other cattle. Their rivals the Angiras, however, would kill the animals for the sake of their meat. Their interests were thus diametrically opposed and they fought for the cows. I hold the Angiras to have been the aggressors.

I should mention here that to make the various preparations of milk the Panis required earthen pots and therefore knew the art of pottery and other kindred arts for making the requisite tools, etc. They also knew the art of cooking. The god "Chatuh Sringah" that is, having four horns, was nothing but a rod for churning milk and was used for preparing clarified butter. Another instrument was named the Dasa Yantra Utsa (6-44-24) It must have been a sort of lactometer. Different Vedic scholars have explained it differently though. There is however no doubt that the Panis knew how to cook and used to take cooked food. But the Angiras simply roasted their meat and other articles of food before taking them. This operation of roasting was known by such names as Kratu and Yajna, i.e., sacrifice. It may be that particular terms were applied as the occasions were ordinary or special. The Angiras hated the Panis and called them Akratu and Ayajna (that is men who did not perform the sacrifice), as the latter were not in the habit of roasting their articles of food. On the other hand it can easily be imagined that the Panis treated the Angiras with contempt for their sacrificial observances. Such epithets as vain, arrogant, etc., applied to the Panis would show that the feeling of hatred originated with them. The hatred of the Angiras was merely reciprocal The fact that the Panis were More advanced would only confirm my theory.

The Rivals

In ancient times it was impossible for men to live in villages as at present. If they were afraid of the depredations of wild beasts, they were no less afraid of the outrages of human enemies which were yet more violent. For this the custom then was to live in Gosthis that is clans or communities. The Panis formed one such clan and they were further subdivided into houses or families. Each clan or house in those days lived in what is now called a Busti in the Upper Provinces of India. The bustis or localities were known as nagars or towns. The towns were protected by walls or trenches around them. I have already said that the Panis had many towns and forts and also an army. The clans of the Asuras, the Ilbis, the Ahis, the Bals, etc. were friends of the Panis and were opposed to the Angirás, the Agnis, the Bayûs, the Marûts, etc. The war they were engaged in might fittly be called the first Kurukshetra war, I believe all the rising families of ancient India took part in this great fight siding with one or the other party. and I have no doubt that branches of the Dása or the primitive families also had their share in it.

I take Agni, Bayû, Marût and others to represent different families or clans like the Panis. This I could prove not only, from the Rig Veda but from various other ancient works also. It is easy to see that the terms as used in the Suktas of the Vedas refer to men. Their present interpretation to denote natural phenomena or the elements in the various passages in which they occur in the Vedas, is more modern: the words originally meant families of men, but underwent a change in the course of time to acquire their present meaning. Professors Max Alluller, Kuhan and others have tried to fix their meaning tracing them to their root., It should be remembered that the Vedic words had already lost their original impart when their roots were formulated, and an attempt to explain them in the light subsequently obtained could not meet with unqualified success.

The Panis and their party have been mentioned as Adevas (a=no or not, and devas = gods). It is therefore not strange if their animals, and their friends have been called Devas. The word Arya is of comparatively modern origin though it, like the word Dása occurs in several Suktas, and so I cannot agree with those who hold the Vedic war 'to have been a war between Aryans and non-Ayans. The word Arya came to be applied to all the clans including the Panis, the Asuras, the Bals the Angiras and others, at a later period.

The frequent application in the Plirva (old) and nûtana (new) the Rig Veda of the words is worthy of notice, as also the mention of Indra as Yuvá -- a word used to qualify other gods also. According to Mr. Dutt, yuvá in several places young. But I think it means new to distinguish the Indra of later days from the Indra of old. The constant use of these three words -- purva, nútana and yuvá leads me to infer that the Rig Veda contains a description not of one but of two great wars one the Panik or Phoenician and the other the Asúrik or pertaining to the Asúras. The Phoenician war was the earlier of the two and it was in the days when the old rishis or sages flourished: the Asúrik war came after when new rishis appeared. The Indra who figured in the Panik war had riot the distinctive term yuvá which characterised the Indra of the Asurik war. There may be Suktas relating to other wars, but these two lasted long and were the most terrible in those old Verdic days. The Panis were not, however, the only trading people hose old Vedic days. Many other nations and races either singly or jointly all or most traded with the Panis in various parts of the then known world while some families espoused the cause of the Angiras. Perhaps vide 31, 32 and 33 of Sukta 45, mandala 6, relate regarding the Bribus. These Bribus, I think, were no other than the modern Brahui or Brahoe of Beluchistan for which reference may be made to Chamber's Encyclopaedia Vol II, or Encyclopaedia Britannica, Vol. III. They were skilled carpenters. The Tvastas were a branch of these Bribus, Professor Max Aluller has given an account of the Bribus in Vol. 11 of his "Chips from a German Workshop" According to him they were a family of carpenters from whom the Rhiblús also learnt the art. I think the Rhiblús who were allies of the Angiras learnt the art of carpentry from the Bribus who sided with the Panis. The fact is that all of them were men and not gods. vide Suktas 20 and 40 of the first mandala.

The word Pûshá is mentioned in Sukta 42 of the first Mandala and also in several other Suktas. The Angiras were not acquainted with the whereabouts of the Panis and so sought the help of the Pushas in finding them out. The Pushas were thus the guide of the Angiras. If we eliminate the more modern and the special Suktas we shall find that the Rig Veda is a history of the Panik and the Asurik wars. The gods mentioned in them were friends of one or other of the parties engaged in the wars. They were all different branches of the ancient human race and not gods of the elements, nor deified powers of Nature.

Mutual Hostility

I have already said that the Angiras were hated by the Panis for their sacrificial rites. In fact the hatred was carried so far that the Panis appeared wherever the Angiras performed their sacrifices and caused great disturbances. The Angiras retaliated by seizing and destroying the commodities of butter and cheese of the Panis. The practice of offering up ghee or clarified butter to the sacred fire may be traced to the attempt of the Angiras to burn the ghee they obtained by Plunder from the Panis. In this act the Angiras had had the support of their friends Mitra and Varuna: vide 1-2-7 in which they invoked the latter to their help. Mercilessness in the treatment Of the fallen enemy characterised the spirit of vengeance in those "remote old days. I cannot say that the humanitarian civilisation the present day is without any trace of it. The captives were then kept in dark dungeons strongly bound in chains or cords, in the custody of the Varunas who acted as gaolers and were known as Pasees or Binders. It was the duty of the latter to secure the enemies in the field of battle When conquered and put them in chains. Sometimes they would go out as pirates and surprise their enemies whom they would bring away in chains or cords. In the Suktas 24 and 25 of the first mandala the rihsi is mentioned as Súnah Sep would Sep which would appear to have been used as a general term for the Phoenician prisoners These Suktas describe how they were secured by means of pás, that is, chain or cord. The following passages will help to make me clear: -- "Of the gods of various orders whose graceful name shall I utter? Who will again set me free in this wide world: that I may see my parent "May he (Varuna) chastise the enemy who has pierced my heart." 1-24-28. I pray to you for long life." May the king set us at liberty." 1 24-12.

Unfasten from above, O Varuna, the upper cords that bind us down and the lower ones from below. Loosen also the ties in the middle. We shall then, 0 thou son of Aditi, live sinless without breaking thy vows." 1.24-25.

The above extracts show that those who were thus lamenting and asking for mercy did not know the gods well They only besought him for clemency who they thought could release them. It is therefore clear that lamantations who arose parties of the Adevas (no-gods) were subjected to the cruellest torture when imprisoned by their enemies.

The enemies and their houses were burnt down in retaliation: They (the Angiras) made fire with their own hands and hurled it on to the hills (the hill forts of the Panis), for the destroying fire was not there before." 2-24-7

"Thou hast burnt to ashes the robber captured from the land of the Deva." I-33-7.

Jealousy and envy brought about a difference in the customs and usages of the opposing parties. I would trace the different modes of writing from right to left and from left to right to the mutual enmity of the Devas and the Adevas -the latter writing from right to left and the former from left to right. The Panis as traders had learnt early the art of writing for which the Devas disliked them. Even the Vedas remained unwritten for many centuries and continued as Srutis being committed to memory and thus handed down from generation to generation. From an aversion to writing anything written was scorned or ridiculed as after the fashion of the Panis or Panisads. Panisad would appear to be the Greek name for Pani. Hence the name " U-Panisad " or " Upanisad" derived from a dislike to writing. In very many riks the term "U" or "Uh" has an interjectional use and is expressive of an emotion of pain or scorn. I think the word Upanisad (Upanishad), is born of scorn for the Panis. It is remarkable that the derivation of this word Upanishad is not yet satisfactorily traced A reference to the authorities extant will bear me out.

The Date of the Panik War

On the date of the civilisation of the world must count from that date. It would at present appear, that history has not recorded any event earlier than this war, and as our early civilisation is mainly related to the Panis and their times the date of this war must be a very important factor in our researches.

I hold with the Panis that they are the first of the a civilised nations of the earth. If they were the first to see the light of civilisation, they did also, under the guidance of Providence; spread that light among various peoples in the ancient world; in fact they carried it from one country into another either to be expelled in the end or to merge themselves in the nationality of the people with whom they came in, contact. The Panis had colonies in Afghanistan, Persia, Arabia, Turkey, Egypt and Greece, and their supremacy gained ground in one when it declined in another. It will be enough for me to say for the present that facts are on record which conclusively prove that the Panis at least visited all these countries for purposes of trade and they introduced India to other ancient countries of the world in those days.

Many are the adherents of the theory propounded by the Western scholars that from Central Asia the Aryans migrated to India and the other countries. It is not easy to determine exactly who these Aryans were. I am inclined to think that originally there was no nation bearing that name. The word as used in some of the riks of the Rig Veda does not appear to refer to any particular nation. The word "Aryan" came to be used after the Phoenician War. It is probable that the Angiras and their allies were given that name for their agricultural pursuits. This would nullify the theory of their migration from Central Asia. After the Great War the survivors of the rival parties who were left together formed into a new nation under the name of the Aryans. The word Asura has been repeatedly used in the Rig Veda, and I have already shown elsewhere that

Assyria was named after them to denote the country they lived in. After the war a branch of the great Asura clan passed over into Asia Minor and founded Assyria, In India they as well as their country had been known by the name of Asura This leads me to conclude that it was from India and not from Central Asia that the Aryans -migrated into different lands using the trading ships of the Panis in their travels- a conclusion which dispenses with the theory of their migration overland also.

The Phoenician ships sailed from the coasts of India and entered direct the Mediterranean Sea through the Strait of Suez, for in those remote days Suez was a strait and not an isthmus as it afterwards became through the silting up of the channel. The subsequent closure of the passage not only broke off the communication between the East and the West but also separated the Panis inhabiting the two quarters. Hence it was that long afterwards India appeared as a dream land to the ancient Greeks and other nations. The Panik War had taken place long before the strait of Suez was closed. That Suez was originally a strait will be evidenced by the facts here adduced. The present isthmus is sandy, which shows that there was a time when it formed part of the sea. Geology will bear testimony to this. The following extracts also support my view:

"From hence inland to Heliopolis the country of Egypt is a spacious plain, which, though without water, and on a declivity, is a rich and sandy soil."

Herodotus. Book 11, Chap. VII.

Again: "The greater part of the country (Egypt ) described above, as I was informed by the priests, (and my own observation induced me to be of the same opinion) has been a gradual acquisition to the inhabitants. The country above Memphis, between the hills before mentioned, seems formerly to have been an arm of the sea!'

Ibid. Book II, Chap X Heliopolis forms the basis of the great delta of the Nile in Egypt. To the east and the west of Heliopolis the soil is soft and clayey which conclusively proves that it has been formed by the alluvia of the Nile and that the cities of Heliopolis and Memphis stood in the olden days on the shores of the sea. It is therefore patent -that the entire land to the east and the west in a line from Heliopolis to Memphis was under the sea, the Mediterranean and the Red Seas being connected together by the Strait of Suez. In support of this I quote Prof. Pocock who says, "The soil of Egypt, except what it has received from the overflowing of the Nile, is naturally sandy, it is full of nitre and salt."

I am further confirmed in my statement by Prof. Larcher, for he says: "If it be true, all the country from Memphis to the sea must have been formerly a gulf of the Mediterranean parallel to the Arabian gulf, the land must have been raised up little and little from a deposit of the mud which the water of the Nile carry away with them."

All this would show that there was a time when Suez was under water through which the Phoenician vessels sailed to the Mediterranean, and Heliopolis was an important port of the Panis. It was when Suez was a branch of the sea with Heliopolis on it, or before that age even, that the great Phoenician war broke out. The union between the east and the west broke off as Suez turned into an isthmus.

The Strait of Suez had nearly silted up when Moses crossed the Red Sea and the Israelites safely passed over the shallow water. According to many Moses flourished two thousand years before Christ, and it must have taken two thousand years more for Suez to have filled up. The fact that Heliopolis had then fallen into decay before the growing fame of Memphis, would support this theory. It is said that Menes, the first king of Memphis, founded the city more than four thousand years before Christ, and according to the Greeks the gods of the name of Helios reigned in Egypt long before that date extending over a period of about fourteen thousand years. There can be no doubt that these rulers of Heliopolis, the so called gods Helios, were none other than the Pani of old Heliopolis therefore must have fallen into ruins at least four thousand, if not six thousand years before Christ. It should be noted here that Heliopolis was the cradle of the Egyptian civilisation of which, the Panis were undoubtedly the originators.

According to the Western scholars the Rig Veda was composed in 2000 B.C. As I have already shown the Phoenician war to have taken place in 4000 BC the Rig Veda may safely be assumed to have been 'composed about that time. It should be remembered that the great Book took many years to compile and it is not improbable that a number of the Suktas were composed in 4000 B.C. I would even say that the Pauranic or Poetic Age began two thousand years before Christ. It is not therefore unlikely that the historical part of the Rig Veda was anterior to the Pauranic age by another two thousand years. Mr. Tilak, the well known Mahratta scholar, has, in explaining the astronomical import of a particular Sukta, demonstrated that the Rig Veda was composed six or seven thousand years before Christ. The Phoenician war, as recorded in the Rig Veda, may therefore be referred to a date at least six or seven thousand years before the Christian era, if not earlier.

Conclusion

With a few words more I shall conclude the subject. In every nation or race, old or new, civilised or uncivilised, war-songs have been handed down from generation to generation. The small stock of songs that the wild hill tribes possess is only a collection of war-songs Colonel Todd's history of Rajasthan is based on such songs. In fact the songs of Bháts or eulogists, so well known in this country were current even in the Vedic age, and I have no hesitation in affirming that in war-songs and songs of victory the Rig Veda had its origin, at least they form the bulk of the great work. The old war songs of ancient India composed the true Rig Veda and many other songs on various subjects came to be added to them I subsequently The Rig Veda is thus not a collection of hymn and anthems but of war songs recording the primitive history of the world. It may therefore be concluded that the first history of each nation or race of man began with war songs.

I have in the previous section already mentioned the city of Heliopolis of Egypt. In Greek "Heliopolis" means "the city of the sun. In India also there was an ancient city of that name which would appear to have belonged to some family of the Panis. A city or town in those days would be named after the family or clan that inhabited it, and so the clan of the Heliopolis named their towns after their own wherever they went. This I conclude from the name Ilibis which occurs in the Rig Veda, the word being only another form of Heliopolis. All the towns of the name of Heliopolis -in India, in Egypt, or elsewhere were founded by the llibis.

Modern Morea in Greece had for its ancient name Peloponnesus which I think originally meant palli or residence of the Panis. That Greece was not unknown to the people of ancient India has been very ably shown by Prof. Pococke in his work "India in Greece." In fact the fame of India was carried throughout the ancient world by such races as the Ilibis, the Panis, the Bals, the Asuras and others.

If may be safely affirmed that Balkh, Baalbek and other ancient cities bearing similar names were founded by the Bals. We know from the Rig Veda itself that the north west of ancient India was inhabited by these races who used to fight amongst themselves. The Rig Veda is therefore not only a history of ancient India but of the antire ancient world, and so the whole human race is interested in its correct and proper exposition. And as more light is thrown on the subject new truths will be discovered in the various branches of human knowledge. For this purpose it is necessary that the great work should be translated in the different languages of the world.

When in the old days the isthmus of Suez was a strait connecting the Red Sea with the Mediterranean not only was there an exchange of merchandise between the countries on either side but also of thoughts and experiences. With the closing up of the passage such exchange ceased and the nations and races grew up independently each in its own way, the western nations making rapid progress in material prosperity and the eastern in spiritual. Many centuries after Suez has again been opened up to renew the lost connection between the east and the west to fulfil the purposes of a beneficent Providence.

As Bháts or eulogists in the present days sing in praise of heroes and dynasties, so in the old days the Rig Veda was sung by the Rishis or sages and the assembled people heard with rapture the glories of their forefathers. In explanation of the discontinuance of the Vedic songs and psalms in India I can only say what I myself think on the subject. In many places of the Rig Veda mention is made of bovine food which the antagonists of the Panis were in the habit of taking. I am not sure if the word at first meant cattle generally, but it is certain that subsequently it represented the cows only. And it is easy to conceive how the study of the Rig Veda came to be interdicted as containing obnoxious passages when cow-killing was considered a great sin at least in the Pauranic age. In fact the Rig Veda fell into disuse with the introduction of the worship of the cow, nay the unfortunate householder who dared to possess the work was cursed to death from thunder and lightning. The result was that at last not only the doomed Rig Veda, but the entire Vedas fell into oblivion leaving behind only an unshaken veneration for them in the minds of people of the country.

Professor Sergi holds that the ancient civilisation of Europe is derived from the coasts of Mediterranean and he doesn't accept the theory that the Aryan civilization was the first and most ancient in the scale. I believe I have been able to show in this examination of the Rig Vida -- which is a repository of facts not action -- that it was not from Central Asia, as is ordinary supposed, but from India -- the land of Ilibis, the Panis, the Asuras, the Angiras and others -- that the light of civilisation spread far and wide to wake up the whole world to progress and enlightenment

Appendix

The Phoenicians derived their name from Phoenicia, meaning the inhabitants of Phoenicia. The diphthong oe in the word shows that with the sound of o (as in order) it should read as Phonicia and with the sound of e as Phënicia. It is thus clear that by some the word was pronounced as Phënicia, and Phonicia had its origin in Phonis. The pronunciation of P and Ph are so closely allied that it is not unoften that the one takes the place of the other Ph is P hard. The conclusion therefore is that Panis is only a different form of Phonis and the Panis of old were known as the Phoenicians in later days. In fact the word Phoenician has sprung from the word Panis which was the original name of the race. The country inhabited by the Panis came to be known as Pânisé Pânisia -- transformed into Phönicia or Phoenicia, and as time went on the inhabitants of Phoenicia were called Phoenicians instead of Panis.

Two eminent scholars of the day have already expressed their opinion off the subject of this treatise regarding the historical aspect of the vedas. I append them below as they may encourage others like me in this interesting study.

1. Translation of a letter in Bengali addressed to the author by Mr. R. C. Dutt, member of the Indian Civil Service:

I have read your assay on the Panic War. I am glad to see the scholarship and research you have brought to bear on the subject.

I see nothing improbably in the theory that there was a race called Pani or Panis, that the Indian Aryan seized their cows and that many of the suktas of the Rig Veda were composed to record historical events. In fact your exposition seems more plausible than that of Prof. Max Muller. But I am unable to decide which of these two expositions is correct: indeed I cannot say if it is possible to come to a decision on the subject after so many thousand years.

To what nation or race did the Panis belong, if they were really men? You say they were Phoenicians. A good many proofs are wanted before the statement can be accepted. That the Phoenicians always came to ancient India by the land route: that they quarreled and fought with the Indian Aryans, and that the latter knew them as Panis: or, that the Phoenicians have in their own works mentioned the Aryans living on the banks of the Indus -- these are conclusions which require to be amply demonstrated. I do not say that your theory is a groundless one, but still it is only a theory for the present. Hundreds of hill tribes inhabited Afghanistan, and it s not improbable that they quarrelled with the Indian Aryans for cattle (cows), and that some of them were referred to as the Panis in the Suktas of the Vedas.

I cannot accept your meaning of the word Saramá as correct. It may be taken to mean the Dawn even if the word Pani signifies some hill tribe or a trading people -- "at dawn of day the Aryans discovered the concealed cows and recovered them with the help of Indra."

There can however be no doubt that the word go means cows if your interpretation of the word Pani be correct.

Sd. Romesh Chunder Dutt
May 1, 1902

May 1, 1902

[The Phoenicians dwelt in some part of Afghanistan long before they colonised Phoenicia, and the wars described in the Vedas refer to those days. Defeated in those wars or for some other reasons they migrated westward and founded the colony of Phoenicia. Or it may be that Phoenicia was their principal colony in those remote Vedic days, and after their defeat in the wars referred to in the sacred books they removed there for good. Mr. Dutt's suggestion, therefore, that the Phoenicians came to India by land, is not borne out by my conclusions -- Author.]

2. The following appeared in the columns of the Indian Mirror (Calcutta), of the 22nd May 1902, from the pen of the eminent Sanscrit scholar Prof. Satis Chandra Acharya Vidyabhusan M. A. of the Presidency College (Calcutta):

" It was nearly ten years ago that I marked with surprise several passages in the Rig Veda (as for instance, in Mandala VI, Sukta 53) where the word Pani repeatedly occurred. Looking into the commentary of Sayanacharya, I found the word Pani interpreted as Vaninj, a merchant. In the Chapter on Unádi suffixes in Panini's Sanskrit Grammar, the word Vanij was found to be derived from the root Pan. I then suspected that the word Pani, meaning a merchant and occurring in the Rig Veda, might refer to the Phoenician race. Eventually I gave expression to the fact in several places, and lately in the introduction to my edition of Kachchayana's Pali Grammar. I expressed my view on the subject With great diffidence. Now I am very glad to find my view confirmed by our learned friend; Babu Rajeswar Gupta, Head Master of the Rangpore Normal School, and Editor of Anjali, who has published a long and interesting article on the subject in the Chaitra number of his journal. The article is an admirable one and is a product of deep researches into the Vedic literature. It reflects great credit on the scholarship of the writer and has brought to light some very important facts of earliest history."

Published by Jogendra Mohan Guupta, 1904.
Printed by Sanyal and Co. at the Bharat Miihir Press
25, Roy Bagan Street
Calcutta, India

Phoenician Alphabet, Adopted by the Greeks

According to the ancient Greek historian, Herodotus, the Phoenicians introduced their alphabet to Greece. Cadmus the Phoenician is attributed with the credit for this introduction. Further, Phoenician trade was the vessel which speeded the spread of this alphabet along side Phoenician trade which went to the far corners of the Mediterranean. Phoenician alphabet is the ancestor of the Greek alphabet and, hence, of all Western alphabets.

Ancient Egyptian Crossword Puzzle Mystery

2009-11-01T10:01:00.000-08:00

From the precinct of Mut at Karnak, Thebes, Egypt
20th Dynasty, around 1150 BC

A hymn to Mut, 'three times'

The frieze at the top of this limestone stela shows a line of gods worshipping a figure of the goddess Mut which is now lost. The main area of the stela is covered with a grid, each square of which contains a group of hieroglyphic signs. They were originally filled with blue pigment, which would have made it easier to read.

‘We are cared for. Happy are the people. Her city will exist for millions of years as the Per Wer’, they exult
joyously.’18 From the New Kingdom Crossword Hymn to Mut, 103 (I.64, vertical text) with pl 26.
She is ‘the Mistress of the Uraeus’, the Palace Snake, ‘whose dread and awe are in the palace ... there is no form
escaping from her flame’.19 Ibid. 91 (II.10,11, horizontal text) with pl 25.

The grid is sixty-seven squares across and eighty squares down, but may have originally been eighty by eighty. The stela's name is slightly misleading: it is not like a modern 'crossword' puzzle; the horizontal line of text above the grid indicates that the grid contains a hymn to Mut, and that it should be read 'three times'. The point of the puzzle was to decipher and read the different hymns. The Egyptians were very fond of playing with words and images. The text can be read horizontally and vertically; presumably the third way is to read around the outer edge, but the stela is too broken to try this.

H. M. Stewart, 'A crossword hymn to Mut', Journal of Egyptian Archaeol-3, 57 (1971)
R. Parkinson, Cracking codes: the Rosetta St (London, The British Museum Press, 1999

SOURCE 1 SOURCE 2

Vedic Dravidian Gold Mining and Trade in Ancient Africa

2009-11-01T09:54:00.000-08:00

Dravidian Gold Mining and Trade in Ancient Kmatiland

'South Africa is denied its rich cultural history’
Contemporary history textbooks start the recorded history of Southern Africa with the arrival of explorers and settlers from Europe in the seventeenth century, with a few notes on Portuguese explorers a century earlier; in the more remote areas prehistory lasted into the nineteenth century. Not so, says Cape Town historian Dr Cyril A Hromnik (photo at left), whose vast body of research takes our history back more than 2000 years. Citing pervasive influence from India over the millennia, he also offers compelling explanations for many of the unanswered riddles in the region.
Text by Maré Mouton

Read article as PDF.

http://www.villagelife.co.za/NewFiles/15_hromnik.pdf

Were Indians the first colonists in South Africa?

http://cosmologicaljourneys.com/pdf/Chariot%20for%20cj.pdf

Dravidian Gold Mining and Trade in Ancient Kmatiland

Cyril A. Hromnik Mgwenya College of Education, KaNyamazane, Republic of South Africa
This paper examines the background of the ancient gold minersof the Eastern Transvaal and Swaziland by making systematicuse of oral tradition and the early Indian scriptures, Jtakastories, and Tamil literature. It traces the roots going backto the early Dravidian seafarers and reflects on their navigationskills and lust for gold in distant lands.

> There is one researcher that is unlikely to have been heard of by
> Dahl and her colleagues. He has an extremely indiosyncratic view of
> the region, but I know of no one who has done more extensive
> research, or who has a better command of the languages involved. His
> name is Cyril Hromnik. He lives in Cape Town, and works on a sort of
> full-time amateur basis, altho he has a PhD from Syracuse U on Goan-
> Mozambiquan contact. He speaks/reads Portuguese, Tamil, Swahili,
> English, with some Dutch, German and French, not to mention his
> native Slovak, and a bit of Russian! He can 'sound out' material in
> Hebrew and Arabic scripts as well, although he does not read these
> langauges.
> He has been possessed for the past 15 years with the idea that
> there was a significant Indian presence in southern Africa, people
> who were mainly speakers of Dravidian langauges and early Shivites by
> religion. His 'hypothesis' is that they were a significant enough
> presence to have been responsible for the construction and workings
> of many of the ancient gold mines in SA, Moz. and Zimbabwe retion,
> and that they also were responsible for some of the stone work as
> well. They were traders and miners, primarily, and were responsble
> for the early gold workin in Africa that supplied India and the far
> East, as well as Arabia. When the trade in the Indian Ocean
> collapsed after early European intervention, some stayed in Africa
> and blending in eventuallywith the locals, and some returned, by then
> looking rather more African than Indian. There is a certain cultural
> logic, since he argues that they traded animals and animal products
> from India for gold and ivory from Africa. Since one can not get
> married in India without gold, nor in Africa without cattle, there is
> certainly strong motive on both side. It is clear that there were

> people recognised as 'Indian" in the southern AFrican region when
> Europeans first appeared (1460s-1700s), and it has always been a
> vexed question why they were there, if they were 'really there' or
> just figments of Portuguese imaginings (but Portuguese and Dutch were
> pretty clear about these thinkgs in all other instances we know
> about).
> In any case, Hromnik has 15 years of notes, and has done extensive
> archaeological survey work, but published vbery little. There is one
> book that might be interesting"
> 
> Cyril A. Hromnik, Indo-Africa:towards a new understanding of the
> history of sub-saharan africa. Cape Town: Juta and co. ltd., 1981.

SOURCE

LOST CIVILISATIONS...
 The most popular 'alternative history' theories contend that Mpumalanga was
settled by an ancient sea-faring Hindu culture 40,000 years ago. The
mysterious colonists are believed to have erected temples and
astronomical observatories on mountain tops and built strong
stonewalled cities from which they hunted for ivory and mined the
region's ample gold, red ochre and iron reserves. 

 Archaeologist Cyril Hromnik, the leading proponent of the
lost civilisation lobby, insists that the region was empty of
indigenous peoples at the time, and that the legacy of the Hindu empire
is still reflected in local place names, a reverence for cattle amongst
African people, and in the ruins of supposed temples, observatories and
cities. Hromnik, who is an academic at the University of Cape Town,conducts

tours of the most prominent ruins.

Vedic Brahma and Apache Kuterastan

2009-11-01T09:52:00.000-08:00

The Creation Story of the American Apache Indians is very similar to the Vedic Creation Story. Both the Apache creator Kuterastan and the Vedic Creator Lord Brahma appear on a disc shaped object. Brahma sits on the yellow whorl of the lotus and Kuterastan sits on a yellow disc. Both Look around themselves in the four directions and observe an effulgent sea beneath them. Both have the number 4 as a significant component in their beginnings. They both meditate and sing and they both have the task to create all things. Both Brahma and Kuterastan awaken from a long sleep before they begin the creation process. Adding another deminsion to the Vedic connections with Ancient American Culture are Apache Swastikas and Apache Holy Crosses. These images are from the book The North American Indian by Edward S. Curtis with a foreward by former US President Theodore Roosevelt and featured in part two of this article. Both the cross and the Swastika are used by the Apaches to symbolize Divinities. This is another clue reminding us that the Swastika and the Holy Cross are both variations of the same symbol. There is also an authentic Apache ceremonial painting representing the Apache Creation Process. The links are provided for both the Apache source and and the Vedic source. Perhaps there are many more such similarities to be discovered.

There was a time when nothing existed to form the universe—no earth, no sky, and no sun or moon to break the monotony of the illimitable darkness. But as time rolled on, a spot, a thin circular disc no larger than the hand, yellow on one side and white on the other, appeared in midair. Inside the disc sat a bearded man but little larger than a frog, upon whom was to fall the task of creating all things. Kútĕrastan, The One Who Lives Above, is the name by which he is now known, though some call him Yŭádĭstan, Sky Man. Kútĕrastan, as if waking from a long sleep, sat up and rubbed his face and eyes with both hands. Then bending forward, he looked up into the endless darkness, and lo! light appeared everywhere above him. He then looked down, and all below became a sea of light. A glance to the east created yellow streaks of dawn, another to the west the saffron tints of the dying day, both soon becoming obscured by numerous clouds of many hues, formed by his looking around and about in all directions. ...he began to sing: "I am thinking, thinking, thinking, thinking what shall I do next." Four times he thus sang, at the end of the fourth time brushing his face with his hands, which he rubbed briskly together and parted quickly; and there before him stood Chuganaái, the Sun.

Atop that whorl Brahma the first created being, makes his appearance ...

Brahmâ, born out of the lotus flower, could not see the world, although he was situated in the whorl. He therefore circumambulated all of space, and while moving his eyes in all directions he achieved four heads in terms of the four directions.The panorama derided the green and coral of the evening splendor of the sun and the great and golden of the mountain summits with their jewels of waterfalls and herbs, and so was the scenery of flowers and trees [but] the adornment of His hands and legs.'Who am I, this one on top of the lotus? Where did this lotus come from? Surely there is something in the water below. Whether it sprouted of its own or not, it must belong to something else!'